Transportation Engineering

Transportation Engineering

Highway engineering Port and Harbor engineering

2
Airport engineering Railroad engineering
What do transportation engineers do?

Multi Level Bridge Tunnel

3
Can you find at least on object in
this picture that involves a civil
engineer specializing in the areas
of:
• Environmental Engineering;
• Geotechnical/Materials Engineering;
• Structural Engineering;
• Transportation Engineering; and
• Water Resources Engineering?

Structures

Column
Signal Supports
Timing

Retaining Pole
Walls Foundations
Solid Waste
Streets and Disposal
Sidewalks Storm Sewer
Pavement Markings System 4
Module -1. Highway Development and Planning
Highway Alignment and Project Preparation
Module -2. Pavement Materials
Module -3. Pavement Design
Module – 4. Highway Drainage and Highway Economics
Module - 5 Pavement Construction
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Transportation Engineering

Do we need help, or what?

23
 Module - 1

Principles of Transportation
Engineering
Syllabus
Principles of Transportation Engineering: Importance of
transportation, Different modes of transportation. Characteristics of road
transport, Importance of Roads in India, Current Road Development
Programmes in India.
Highway Development and Planning: Highway Development in
India, Highway Planning, Planning Surveys and Interpretation,
Highway Planning in India.
Highway Alignment and Project preparation: Highway Alignment,
Engineering Surveys for Highway Alignment, Drawings and Reports,
Highway Projects, Preparation of Detailed Project Report

25
Transportation Engineering
Transportation engineering is the application of technology and
scientific principles to the planning, functional design, operation and
management of facilities for any mode of transportation in order to safe,
efficient, rapid, comfortable, convenient, economical, and
environmentally compatible movement of people and goods from one
place to other.

26
Transportation Engineering
• Roadways
• Airports
• Port facilities
• Traffic control
• Pavement markings
• Intelligent Transportation Systems

27
Role of Transportation

Transportation Contributes to Prosperity of Nation 28

 Role of Transportation
• Transportation contributes to the economic, industrial, social and
cultural development of any country.
• Transportation is important for the economic development of any
region since every commodity produced whether it is food, clothing,
industrial products or medicine needs transport at every stage from
production to distribution.
• In the production Stage, transportation is required for carrying raw
materials like seeds, manure, coal, steel etc.
• In the distribution stage, transportation is required from the production
centres farms and factories to the marketing centres and later to the
retailers and the consumers for distribution 29
Importance of Transportation

1.Transport contributes in Growth of industries whose

product requires quick marketing Perishable articles like fish
and green vegetables are carried to various consumers quickly
even in distant markets through transport.

2.Transport helps in increase in the demand for goods.

30
Importance of Transportation
3.Transport creates place utility. Geographical and climatic
factors force industries to be located in particular places far
away from the markets and places where there may not be any
demand for the products. Transport bridges the gap between
production and consumption centers.

4.Transport creates time utility. Of late transport has started

creating the time utility also. It has been made possible by
virtue of the improvements in the speed of transport. It helps
the product to be distributed in the minimum possible time.
31
Importance of Transportation
5.Transport helps in stabilization of price. Transport exerts
considerable influence upon the stabilization of the prices of
several commodities by moving commodities from surplus to
deficit areas. This equalizes the supply and demand factors and
makes the price of commodities stable as well as equal.

6.Transport ensures even flow of commodities into the hands of

the consumers through out the period of consumption.

32
Importance of Transportation
7.Transport enables the consumers to enjoy the benefits of
goods not produced locally. This increases the standard of
living, an essential factor for further development of marketing
and economy.

8.Transport identifies competition, which in turn, reduces price.

Prices are also reduced because of the facilities offered by
transport for large-scale production. Advantages of large scale
production is possible only due to transport.

33
Importance of Transportation
9.Transport increases mobility of labor and capital. It makes
people of one place migrate to other places in search of jobs.
Even capital, machineries and equipments are imported from
foreign countries through transport alone.

10. Bring countries closer : No country in the world is self-

sufficient. They have to depend on one another to fulfill their
requirements. Transportation has brought the countries closer. It
not only caters to the need of mobility but also provides
comfort and convenience.
34
Importance of Transportation
11. Creates employment: Transport also contributes to
economic development through job creation. It creates both
direct and indirect employment opportunities. In India, a
sizeable portion of the country’s working population is directly
or indirectly employed in the transport sector.

• It also facilitates movement of labors and thereby encourages

employment resulting into industrial development and thereby
economic development.

35
Importance of Transportation
12. Serve several purposes: Transportation provides access to
natural resources and promotes trade, allowing a nation to
accumulate wealth and power. Transportation also allows the
movement of soldiers, equipment, and supplies during war.

• Hence transportation is vital to a nation’s economy as it serve

several purposes. It includes the manufacture and distribution
of vehicles, the production and distribution of fuel, and the
provision of transportation services.

36
Different Modes of Transportation
Basic media of transportation are
Land
• Roadway
• railway
Water
Air

37
Modes of Transportation
• Highways
Car, Bus, Truck, non- motorized ..etc
• Railways
Passenger and Goods
• Airways
Aircraft and Helicopters
• Waterways
Ships, boats…
• Continuous Flow systems
Pipelines, belts, elevetor, ropeway…etc.
38
Characteristics of Road Transport
• Roads are used by various types of road vehicles, like passenger cars,
buses, trucks, pedal cycle and animal drawn vehicle.
• It requires a relatively small investment for the government.
• It offers a complete freedom to road users to transfer the vehicle from
one lane to another and from one road to another according to need and
convenience.
• Speed and movement is directly related with the severity of accident.
• Road transport is the only means of transport that offers itself to the
whole community alike.

39
Characteristics of Road Transport
• Speed
• Safety
• Adequacy
• Frequency
• Regularity
• Integration
• Responsibilities
• Cost
• Affordness
• Efficiency
40
Roadway
Advantages of roadways Disadvantages of roadways
 Maximum flexibility  Goods carrying
For travel Capacity is low
 It permits any mode  Speed is low compare
of road vehicle To air and waterway
 It provides door-to-  Less comfort and
Door service safe
 It saves time for  Uneconomical for
short distance Long distance
 Construction and  Number of road
maintenance cost is accident is high
Low

41
Railways
Advantages of railways Disadvantages of railways
 Goods carrying  It is not flexible.
Capacity is high
 Speed is high compare  It dependent on
To roadways roadway
 Cheaper then  Train runs as per
airways schedules
 Comfortable for  Maintenance cost is
long distance travel high
 It increases trade,  It permits definite
commuters and business mode of transport

42
Airways
Advantages of airways Disadvantages of airways
 It doesn't require a  It is most expensive
Tracks
 It is useful in  Construction cost is
military activities high for airports and
aircrafts
 Fastest mode of  Fuel consumption is
transportation high
 It is a powerful mean  Maintenance cost is
of attack high for aircrafts
 It helps in aerial  Accident causes high
photography loss

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Waterways
Advantages of waterways Disadvantages of waterways
 No need of  It is slow
constructing tracks
 It requires cheap  Storms can cause
motive power great loss
 Cheapest mode of  It is useful along
transportation particular routes
 It provides efficient  Maintenance cost is
mode of defense high
 It helps in growth of  It has limited
industries connectivity

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Historical development of road construction

• Oldest mode
 Foot paths- animal ways, cart path……..
• As civilization evolved the need for transportation increased
•ROMAN ROAD
 They were built straight regardless of gradient
 They were built after the soft soil was removed and a hard stratum
was reached.
 Thickness varies from 0.75 m to 1.2m

45
Roman Road Construction
Basic cross section

46
Roman Roads

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Indian Roads

• India has a large road network of over 3.314 million kilometers of

roadways making it 3rd largest road network in the world.

• National Highways - 70,548 Km

• State Highways - 1,31,899 Km
• Major District Roads - 4,67,763 Km
• Rural Roads - 26,50,000 Km

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Importance of Roads in India

• Economic Development

• Social Development

• Spatial Development

• Cultural Development

• Political Development
49
Highway Development in India

• Jayakar Committee (1927)

• Central Road Fund (1929)
• Indian Roads Congress (IRC), 1934
• Central Road Research Institute (CRRI), 1950
• Motor vehicle act (1936)
• National Highway Authority of India (NHAI),1995
• First twenty-year road plan ( 1943-61 )
• Second twenty-year road plan ( 1961-81 )
• Third twenty-year road plan ( 1981-2001 )
50
Jayakar Committee 1927

• After the first World War, motor vehicle using the roads increases, this
demanded a better road network.
• In 1927, Indian road development committee was appointed by the
government with M.R. Jaykar as chairman.
• Road development in the country should be made as a national interest
since local govt. do not have financial and technical capacity for road
development.
• An extra tax should be on petrol from road users to create the road
development fund.
• To create a national level institution to carry research , development
works and consultation.
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Central Road Fund 1929

• It was formed on 1st march 1929

• The consumers of petrol were charged an extra 2.64 paisa per liter of
petrol to built up this road development fund.
• From this 20% of annual revenue is to be retain as a central revenue
for research and experimental work expenses. etc
• Balance 80% is allowed by central govt. to various states based
on actual petrol consumption

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Central Road Fund 1929
CRF Act , 2000
• Distribution of 100% cess on petrol as follows:
57.5% for NH
30% for SH
12.5% for safety works on rail-Road crossing.
• 50% cess on diesel for Rural Road development

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Indian Roads Congress, 1934

• Central semi official body known as IRC was formed in 1934.

• To provide national forum for regular pooling of experience and ideas
on matters related to construction and maintenance of highways.
• It is a active body controlling the specification, standardization and
recommendations on materials, design of roads and bridges.
• It publishes journals, research publications and standard
specifications guide lines.
• To provide a platform for expression of professional opinion on
matters relating to roads and road transport.

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Motor Vehicle Act

• It was formed in 1939

• To regulate the road traffic in the form of traffic laws, ordinances and
regulations.
• Three phases primarily covered are control of driver, vehicle
ownership and vehicle operation on roads and in traffic stream.
• It was revised on 1988.

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Central Road Research Institute (1950)

• Engaged in carrying out research and development projects relating to

road technology.
• Design, construction and maintenance of roads and runways, traffic
and transportation planning of mega and medium cities, management
of roads in different terrains
• Improvement of marginal materials.
• Utilization of industrial waste in road construction.
• Landslide control.
• Ground improvements, environmental pollution.
• Road traffic safety.
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Ministry of Road Transport and Highways

• Planning, development and maintenance of National Highways in the

country.
• Extends technical and financial support to State
• Governments for the development of state roads and the roads of inter-
state connectivity and economic importance.
• Evolves standard specifications for roads and bridges in the country.
• It stores the data related to technical knowledge on roads and bridges.

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Highway Research Board

• Set up in 1973 to give proper direction and guidance to road research

activities in India.
• Act as national body for co-ordination and promotion of highway research.
Objectives:
• To ascertain the nature and extent of research required
• To correlate research information from various organization in India and
abroad
• To co-ordinate and conduct correlation services.
• To collect and disseminate results of research
• To channelize consultative services.
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First 20-years road plan(1943-63)

• It is the first attempt to prepare the road development programme in a

planned manner.
• The conference of chief engineers held at Nagpur in 1943 finalized the
first 20-years road development plan for India called Nagpur road
plan.
• Road network was classified into five categories- NH, SH, MDR,
ODR and VR.
• The responsibility of construction maintenance of NH was assign to
central govt.
• The target road length was 5,32,700 km at the end of 1961.

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First 20-years road plan(1943-63)

• Density of about 16km of road length per 100 sq. km area would be
available in the country by the year 1963.

• The formulae were based on star and grid pattern of road network.

• An allowance of 15% is provided for agricultural industrial

development during the next 20-years

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Second 20-years road plan(1961-81)

• It was initiated by the IRC and was finalized in 1959 at the meeting of
chief engineers.
• It is known as the Bombay road plan.
• Due consideration to the development that are actually taking place and
developments that have to take place
• The target road length was almost double that of Nagpur road plan i.e.
10,57,330 km.
• Or Density about 32 km per 100 sq. km. and an outlay of 5200 crores
• Every town with population above 2000 in plans and above 1000 in
semi hill area and above 500 in hilly area should be connected by roads.
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Second 20-years road plan(1961-81)

• The maximum distance from any place in a semi develop area would
be 12.8 km from metalled road and 4.8 from any road.
• Expressways have also been considered in this plan and 1600km of
length has been included in the proposed target NH.
• Length of railway track is considered independent of road system.
• 5% are to be provided for future development and unforeseen factor.

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Third 20-years road plan(1981-2001) – Lucknow Plan

• Prepared by Roads Wing of the Ministry of Transport

• The future road development should be based on the revised
classification of roads system i.e. primary, secondary and tertiary
• Due consideration given for improvement of transportation facilities in
villages, conservation of energy, preservation of environmental quality
and improvement in road safety.
• Develop the rural economy and small towns with all essential features.
• Population over 500 should be connected by all weather roads.
• Density increases to 82 km per 100 sq. km area by 2001.

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Third 20-years road plan(1981-2001)

• The NH network should be expanded to form a square grids of 100 km

sides so that no part of the country is more than 50 km away from the
NH
• Expressway should be constructed along major traffic corridors
• All towns and villages with population over 1500 should be connected
by MDR and villages with population 1000-1500 by ODR.
• Road should be built in less industrialized areas to attract the growth of
industries
• The existing roads should be improved by rectifying the defects in the
road geometry, widening, riding quality and strengthening the existing
pavement to save vehicle operation cost and thus to conserve energy.
64
Pradhan Mantri gram sadak yojana(PMGSY)

• The government of India have launched PMGSY in year 2000 with the
objective of providing connectivity to all villages having population
more than 500 persons and above by the year 2003.
• The PMGSY covers only ODR and VR.
• Primary focus will be on providing connectivity to unconnected
villages and habitations in districts through good quality all weather
rods.
• Surface roads( black topped or cement roads)

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Classification of Roads
Depending on weather
• All weather roads
• Fair weather roads
Depending the type of Carriage way
• Paved roads(WBM)
• Unpaved roads(earth road or gravel road)
Depending upon the pavement surfacing
• Surfaced roads(bituminous or cement concrete road)
• Un surfaced roads

66
Methods of Classification of Roads
Based on the Traffic Volume- Based on vehicles per day
• Heavy
• Medium &
• Low volume roads
Based on Load transported or Tonnage
• Class 1 or Class 2 etc or Class A , B etc Tonnes per day
Based on location and function ( Nagpur road plan )
• National highway (NH)
• State highway (SH)
• Major district road (MDR)
• Other district road (ODR)
• Village road (VR)
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Expressway
• Heavy traffic at high speed (120km/hr)
• Land Width (90m)
• Full access control
• Connects major points of traffic generation
• No slow moving traffic allowed
• No loading, unloading, parking

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National Highways
• NH are the main highways running through the length and breadth of
India, connecting major parts, foreign highways, capital of large states and
large industrial and tourist centers including roads required for strategic
movements for the defense of India.
• The national highways have a total length of 70,548 kms. Indian highways
cover 2% of the total road network of India and carry 40% of the total
traffic.
• The highway connecting Delhi-Ambala-Amritsar is denoted as NH-1,
whereas a bifurcation of this highway beyond Jalandar to Srinagar and Uri
is denoted NH-1-A
• The longest highway in India is NH7 which stretches from Varansi in Uttar
Pradesh to Kanyakumari in the southern most point of Indian mainland.

69
National Highways
• The shortest highway is NH47A which stretches from Ernakulam to
Kochi and covers total length of 4 Kms.
Golden Quadrilateral – (5,846 K Kolkata-
Chennai-Mumbai-Delhi
• NH-2 Delhi- Kol (1453 km)
• NH 4,7&46 Che-Mum (1290km
• NH5&6 Kol- Che (1684 m)
• NH 8 Del- Mum (1419 km)

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State Highways
• They are the arterial roads of a state, connecting up with the national
highways of adjacent states, district head quarters and important cities
within the state.
• Serve as the main arteries for traffic to & from district roads.
• Total length of all SH in the country is 1,37,119 Km.
• NH and SH have same design speed and geometric design
specifications.

71
Major District Roads
• Important roads with in a district serving areas of production and
markets , connecting those with each other or with the major highways
of a district.
• India has a total of 4,70,000 km of MDR.
• Speed 60-80kmph

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Other District Roads
• Serving rural areas of production and providing them with outlet to
market centers, taluk head quarters or other important roads like MDR
or SH.
• Speed 50-60kmph
Village roads
• Roads connecting villages or group of villages with each other or to
the nearest road of a higher category like ODR or MDR.
• India has 26,50,000 kms of ODR+VR out of the total 33,15,231 kms
of all type of roads.
• Speed-40-50kmph

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Based on Modified System of Roads
CLASSIFICATION AS PER THIRD 20 YEAR ROAD
DEVELOPMENT PLAN
 Primary system
• Expressways
• National Highways
 Secondary
• SH
• MDR
Tertiary
• ODR
• VR
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Urban Road Classification
• Arterial Roads

• Sub Arterial

• Collector streets

• Local Street

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Arterial Roads
• Primarily for through and heavy/important traffic inside the city
• No frontage access, no standing vehicle, very little cross traffic.
• Join central business district with outside residential areas
• Design Speed : 80km/hr
• Land width : 50 – 60m
• Divided roads with full or partial parking.
• Pedestrian allowed to walk only at intersection.

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Sub-Arterial Roads
• Bus stops but no standing vehicle.
• Less traffic than arterial streets
• Parking, loading, unloading usually restricted and controlled
• Design speed : 60 km/hr
• Land width : 30 – 40 m

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Collector Streets
• Collects and distributes traffic from local streets to arterial roads.
• Provides access to residential properties.
• Located in residential, business and industrial areas.
• Full access allowed.
• Few parking restrictions except for peak hours
• Design speed : 50km/hr
• Land Width : 20-30m.

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Local Streets
• Design Speed : 30km/hr.
• Land Width : 10 – 20m.
• Primary access to residence, business or other abutting property
• Less volume of traffic at slow speed
• Unrestricted parking, pedestrian movements. (with frontage access,
parked vehicle, bus stops and no waiting restrictions)

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Road Pattern
• Rectangular or Block patterns
• Radial or Star and block pattern
• Radial or Star and Circular pattern
• Radial or Star and grid pattern
• Hexagonal Pattern
• Minimum travel Pattern

80
Road Pattern

81
Road Pattern
• Rectangular or Block pattern: In this pattern, the whole area is divided
into rectangular blocks of plots, with streets intersecting at right angles. The
main road which passes through the center of the area should be sufficiently
wide and other branch roads may be comparatively narrow. The main road is
provided a direct approach to outside the city.
Advantages:
• The rectangular plots may be further divided into small rectangular blocks
for construction of buildings placed back to back, having roads on their
front.
• The construction and maintenance of roads of this pattern is comparatively
easier.
Limitations:
• This pattern is not very much inconvenient because at the intersections, the
vehicles face each other. Example: Chandigarh has rectangular pattern 82
Road Pattern

83
Road Pattern
Radial or Star and block Pattern: In this pattern, the entire area is divided
into a network of roads radiating from the business outwardly. In between
radiating main roads, the built-up area may be planned with rectangular block.
Advantages
• Reduces level of congestion
• If one is block then other side traffic can move.
• Vehicles face each other less than block pattern.
Hexagonal Pattern: In this pattern, the entire area is provided with a network
of roads formatting hexagonal figures. At each corner of the hexagon, three
roads meet the built-up area boundary by the sides of the hexagons is further
divided in suitable sizes.

84
Road Pattern

85
Road Pattern

Radial or Star and Circular Pattern: In this system, the main radial roads radiating
from central business area are connected together with concentric roads.
• In these areas, boundary by adjacent radial roads and corresponding circular roads, the
built-up area is planned with a curved block system.
Advantages
• Potentially serious crashes essentially are eliminated because vehicles travel in the
same direction.
• Installing circular pattern in place of traffic signals can also reduce the likelihood of
rear- end crashes.
• Removing the reason for drivers to speed up as they approach green lights and by
reducing abrupt stops at red lights.
• Because roundabouts improve the efficiency of traffic flow, they also reduce vehicle
emissions and fuel consumption.
86
Road Pattern

Radial or Star and Grid Pattern: Change in direction, and because street
patterns are the most enduring physical element of any layout, it could
potentially contribute to systematic site planning and, consequently,
deserves a closer look.
• Though the network is entirely interconnected, north-south movement
becomes circuitous, indirect, and inconvenient, making driving an
unlikely choice and vividly illustrating that interconnectedness by itself is
insufficient to facilitate movement.
Examples: The Nagpur road plan formulae were prepared on the
assumption of Grid pattern.

87
Fourth twenty year road development plan (2001-2021) vision:
2021

• It is to be recognized that even

after the habitations eligible under
Pradhan Mantri gram sadak yojana
(PMGSY) are fully covered.
• There is still left with a large
number (about 1.68 lakh)
unconnected habitations of lower
size population.
• To serve the last person and the
remotest village.

88
Fourth twenty year road development plan (2001-2021) vision: 2021

OBJECTIVES

I. The road network as on May 2007 stands at 3.3

million km. Of this, rural roads comprise around 2.7
million km, i.e. about 85 percent. Overall village
accessibility stood at 54 percent in the year 2000.

II. Emphasis is continuing in social development

sectors so as to improve the quality of life and
alleviate poverty

III. The objective has to be to provide full

connectivity to all habitations including provision of
bridges and culverts. 89
Fourth twenty year road development plan (2001-2021) vision: 2021
• Accordingly, the following vision for new connectivity has been
recommended.

a) Habitations with population above 1000 (500 in case of hill, NE

states, deserts and tribal areas) by the year 2009-10.

b) Habitations with population above 500 (250 in case of hill, NE states,

deserts and tribal areas)by year 2014-15.

c) Habitations with population above 250 by the year 2021-22.

90
Fourth twenty year road development plan (2001-2021)
vision: 2021

iv) The Central Government has also

introduced the concept of a Core Network,
which is defined as the network that is essential
to provide one basic access to each habitation.

v) Proper drainage and design standards were

made for rural roads. Many management rule,
powers to different authorities and other
standard data book was set and prepared by
NRRDA (National Rural Road Development
Authority).

vi) Importance was given to the use of

advanced and latest equipment in road
91
constructions to facilitate the economics
Fourth twenty year road development plan (2001-2021) vision: 2021
vii)The Government also needs to develop independent think-tanks and
academicians on various aspects of rural roads like engineering, safety,
environmental issues, socio-economic impact, etc

viii) Action should be taken by each state to formulate a 5-year Action

Plan in the light of recommendations of the Vision document

92
 Salient
Features of
vision 2021
i) The Road Development Plan
Vision: 2021 was prepared
with the full involvement of
the highway profession both
within the government and the
private sector and represents
an expression of the intent for
highway development in the
two decades from 2001.
93
 Salient Features
of vision 2021

ii) This Vision addressed concerns such as

the need for mobilization of financial
resources including augmentation of road
fund, toll financing, private sector
participation, capacity augmentation of
main highways, strengthening of
pavement to cope with movement of
heavy commercial vehicles, undertaking
massive programme of construction of
village roads and preservation of existing
road assets. 94
Salient Features of
vision 2021
iii) Aspects such as road safety,
social and environment concerns
and energy efficiency have also
been highlighted.

95
 Salient Features
of vision 2021
iv) The vision document laid down targets for
main roads but did not specify the length of the
rural road network. Instead, stress was laid on
preparation of proper district level master plans to
optimize the network.
v)Target Roads Lengths by the year 2021:
a. Expressways 10,000 km
b. National Highways 80,000 km
c. State Highways 160,000 km
d. Major District Roads 320,000 km. 96
Highway
Planning

97
 Highway Planning
Planning is the basic requirement for any new project or
an expansion programme. Particularly when funds
available are limited and requirement are higher.

The objects of planning are:

1. To plan a road network for efficient and safe traffic
operations, but at minimum cost.

2. To arrive at the road system and the lengths of different

categories of roads which could provide maximum utility
and could be constructed with in available resources
during the plan period.
98
3. To divide overall plan into phases
and to decide priorities.

4. To fix up date wise priorities for

development of each link based on
utility as the main criterion for phasing
the road development programme.

5. To plan for future requirement and

improvements of roads in view of
anticipated developments.

6. To work out financing system.

99
 Phases of
Highway
Planning
Highway Planning includes
the following phases:
• Assessment of road length
requirement for an area
• Preparation of master plan
showing the phasing of
plan in five year plans or
annual plans.

100
 Phases of Highway
Planning

PLANNING SURVEYS and

INTERPRETATION
• The field surveys thus required for
collecting the factual data may be called
as planning survey or fact finding
surveys:
• The planning surveys consists of the
following studies
i) Economical Studies
ii) Financial studies
iii) Traffic or road use studies
101
 Economic Studies
• Useful in estimating the requirements,
cost involved for the proposed highway
improvement programme and the
economic justification.
The details to be collected includes:
1. Total population and classified
distribution of different population groups
based on occupation, income, ect.., in
each village, town or other locality.
2. Trend of population growth of various
population groups.
3. Agriculture and industrial products and
their listing in classified groups, area wise.
4. Industrial and agricultural development ,
and future trends.
5. Existing Facilities with regard to
communication, education, banks,
hospitals , post office, recreation 102
facilities.
 Financial Studies
Various financial aspects such as sources of income,
various types of revenues from duties and taxes on
products, road transport, vehicle registration etc., and to
assess the way in which funds for project may be
mobilized.
The details to be collected are :
1. Sources of income and estimated revenue from different
types of taxation including revenue from road transport
sector
2. Standard of living of diff population groups and the
trend in changes.
3. Resources at local level, toll taxes, vehicle registration
and fines.
4. Anticipated development in the area and generated
income.
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5. Future trends in financial aspects.
Traffic or Road Use Studies
Traffic surveys to be carried out to collect
details like
• Classified traffic volume in veh/day,
peak and design hourly traffic volumes
• Studies based on Home interview
method
• Traffic flow patterns
• Mass transportation facilities
• Accidents, their causes and cost analysis
• Future trend and growth in traffic
volume and goods traffic, trend in
traffic engineering
• Growth of passenger trips and trend in 104
 Engineering
Studies

The engineering studies include;

• Topographic survey

105
 106

Engineering Studies Soil surveys

Engineering Studies
• Location and classification of
existing roads
• Assessment of various other
developments in the area that
are likely due to proposed
highway development

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Engineering Studies

• Road life studies

• Special problems in
drainage, construction and
maintenance of roads

108
Preparation of Plans
The following 4 typical drawing are prepared showing the various
details of the area
• PLAN 1-General area plan showing almost all existing features viz,
topography, exiting road networks, drainage structures, river, villages
with population, agricultural area etc..
• PLAN 2-The distribution of population groups in accordance with the
categories made in the appropriate plan
• PLAN 3-Shows the location of places with their respective quantities
of productivity
• PLAN 4-Shows existing road network with traffic flows and studies.
Proposed new and alternative routes.
109
 Preparation of Plans

• PLAN 1-General area plan

showing almost all existing
features viz, topography, exiting
road networks, drainage
structures, river, villages with
population, agricultural area etc..

110
 Preparation of
Plans

• PLAN 2 - The distribution

of population groups in
accordance with the
categories made in the
appropriate plan.

111
 Preparation of
Plans
• PLAN 3 - Shows the
location of places with
their respective quantities
of productivity.

112
 Preparation
of Plans
• PLAN 4-Shows existing
road network with traffic
flows and studies.

• Proposed new and

alternative routes.

113
 Interpretation of results of planning surveys
• To arrive at the optimum road network with maximum
utility among alternative proposals.
• To fix up the priority of the construction projects and
phase the development plan
• To assess the actual road use by studying traffic flow
patterns.
• Based on the studies, structural and geometric features
are constructed.
• Comparisons of the areas may be obtained on the basis
of their economic activities.
• By appropriate statistical analysis, the data obtained in
fact finding surveys may be analyzed for the future 114
trends in development of an area.
 Preparation of
Master Plan
• Master plan -final road development plan
for the study area
• Target Road Lengths: It is fixed for the
country on the basis of area or population
and productivity or any other criteria and
same is taken as guide for deciding total
lengths of road system
• Nagpur road plan – 16km per 100 sqkm
• Bombay road plan- 32km per 100 sqkm
• Lucknow road plan – 82 km per 100 sqkm
115
 Stages in the
Preparation of
Master Plan
• Data Collection: It includes data regarding existing
land use, industrial and agricultural growth,
population, traffic flow, topography, future trends.
• Preparation of draft plan and invite suggestions and
comments from public and experts.
• Revision of draft plan in view of the discussions
and comments from experts and public.
• Comparison of various alternate proposals of road
system and finding out the sequence in which the
master plan will be implemented. 116
Saturation System
• Optimum road length is calculated for area based on the concept of
obtaining maximum utility per unit length of road. Hence this system
is called saturation system or maximum utility system.
• The factors which are taken for obtaining the utility per unit length of
road are:
1.Population served by the road network
2.Productivity served by the network
a. Agricultural products
b. Industrial products

117
Saturation System
Since the area under consideration may consist of villages and towns with
different populations, it grouped into some ranges and assigned some values
of utility units.
Example:
• Population less than 500, utility unit = 0.25
• Population 501-1000, utility unit = 0.50
• Population 1001to 2000, utility unit = 1.00 per village
• Population 2001 – 5000, utility unit = 2.00 etc..
Similarly,
the agriculture products for tonnes productivity, utility units = 1
Industrial products for tonnes productivity, utility units =10 etc.
118
Saturation System
The various steps to be taken to obtain maximum utility per unit length are:
Population factors or units: Since, the area under consideration consists
of villages and towns with different population these are grouped into some
convenient population range and some reasoning values of utility units to
each range of population serve are assigned.
Productivity Factors or units: The total agricultural and industrial
products served by each road system are worked out and the productivity
served may be assigned appropriate values of utility units per unit weight.
Optimum Road length: Based on the master plan the targeted road length
is fixed for the country on the basis of area or population and production or
both. And the same may be taken as a guide to decide the total length of the
road system in each proposal.
119
Saturation System
Utility units per unit length of road:
• The total utility units served by each road system are found by adding
the population units and productive units.
• The total units obtained are divided by the total road length of each
system to obtain the utility rate per unit length of road.
• The proposal which gives maximum utility per unit length may be
chosen as the final road system with optimum road length based on
maximum utility by this method.

120
Highway Alignment and Project Preparation

121
Highway Alignment
• The position or lay out of centre line of the highway on the ground is
called the alignment.
• It includes straight path, horizontal deviation and curves.
• Due to improper alignment, the disadvantages are,
 Increase in construction
 Increase in maintenance cost
 Increase in vehicle operation cost
 Increase in accident cost
• Once the road is aligned and constructed, it is not easy to change the
alignment due to increase in cost of adjoining land and construction
of costly structure.
122
Highway Alignment

123
Highway Alignment

124
Highway Alignment

125
Requirements Highway Alignment
 Short
 Easy
 Safe
 Economical

• Short- desirable to have a short alignment between two terminal stations.

• Easy- easy to construct and maintain the road with minimum problem also easy for operation
of vehicle.
• Safe- safe enough for construction and maintenance from the view point of stability of natural
hill slope, embankment and cut slope also safe for traffic operation.
• Economical- total cost including initial cost, maintenance cost and vehicle
operation cost should be minimum.
126
Factors Controlling Alignment
Obligatory points
 Traffic
 Geometric design
 Economics
Other considerations
Additional care in hill roads
 Stability
 Drainage
 Geometric standards of hill roads
 Resisting length
127
Factors Controlling Alignment
•Obligatory points
 Obligatory points through which alignment is to pass
Examples:-bridge site, intermediate town , Mountain pass etc…
 Obligatory points through which alignment should not pass.
Examples:-religious places, costly structure, unsuitable land etc…
•Traffic
• Origin and destination survey should be carried out in the area
and the desire lines be drawn showing the trend of traffic flow.
• New road to be aligned should keep in view the desired lines, traffic
flow patterns and future trends.
128
 Geometric Design
• Design factors such as gradient, radius of curve
and sight distance also govern the final
alignment of the highway.
• Gradient should be flat and less than the ruling
gradient or design gradient.
• Avoid sudden changes in sight distance,
especially near crossings
• Avoid sharp horizontal curves
• Avoid road intersections near bend
•Economy
• Alignment finalized based on total cost including
initial cost, maintenance cost and vehicle operation
cost.
•Other consideration
• Drainage consideration, political consideration
• Surface water level, high flood level
• Environmental consideration 129
Factors Controlling
Alignment
• Topographical control
points
The alignment, where possible
should avoid passing through
• Marshy and low lying
land with poor drainage
• Flood prone areas
• Unstable hilly features

130
Factors Controlling Alignment
Materials and constructional features
 Deep cutting should be avoided
 Earth work is to be balanced; quantities for filling and excavation
 Alignment should preferably be through better soil area to minimize
pavement thickness
 Location may be near sources of embankment and pavement materials

131
 Factors Controlling Alignment
•Stability
• A common problem in hilly roads is land sliding
• The cutting and filling of the earth to construct the roads on
hilly sides causes steepening of existing slope and affect its
stability.
•Drainage
• Avoid the cross-drainage structure
• The number of cross drainage structure should be
minimum.
•Geometric standard of hilly road
• Gradient, curve and speed
• Sight distance, radius of curve
•Resisting length
• The total work to be done to move the loads along the route
taking horizontal length, the actual difference in level between
two stations and the sum of the ineffective rise and fall in 132
excess of floating gradient. Should kept as low as possible.
Engineering Surveys for Highway Location
•Before a highway alignment is finalized in highway project, the
engineering survey are to be carried out. The various stages of
engineering surveys are

 Map study (Provisional alignment Identification)

 Reconnaissance survey

 Preliminary survey

 Final location and detailed surveys 133

 Map Study
• From the map alternative routes can
be suggested in the office, if the
topographic map of that area is
available.
• The probable alignment can be
located on the map from the
fallowing details available on the
map.
 Avoiding valleys, ponds or lake
 Avoiding bend of river
 If road has to cross a row of
hills, possibility of crossing
through mountain pass.
• Map study gives a rough guidance
of the routes to be further surveyed
134
 Reconnaissance
• To confirm features indicated on map.
• To examine the general character of the area in field for
deciding the most feasible routes for detailed studies.
• A survey party may inspect along the proposed
alternative routes of the map in the field with very
simple instrument like abney level, tangent clinometer,
barometer etc…. To collect additional details.
• Details to be collected from alternative routes
during this survey are,
 Valleys, ponds, lakes, marshy land,
hill, permanent structure and other obstruction.
• Value of gradient, length of gradient and radius of
curve.

135
Reconnaissance
 Number and type of cross drainage structures.
 High Flood Level (HFL)
 Soil Characteristics
 Geological features
 Source of construction materials- stone quarries, water sources.
• Prepare a report on merits and demerits of different alternative routs.
• As a result a few alternate alignments may be chosen for further study based on
practical considerations observed at the site.

136
Preliminary Survey
Objective of preliminary survey are:

• To survey the various alternative alignments proposed after the

reconnaissance and to collect all the necessary physical information
and detail of topography, drainage and soil.

• To compare the different proposals in view of the

requirements of the good alignment.

• To estimate quantity of earthwork materials and other construction

aspect and to workout the cost of the alternate proposals.
137
Preliminary Survey
Methods of preliminary survey:
• a) Conventional approach-survey party carries out surveys using
the required field equipment, taking measurement, collecting
topographical and other data and carrying out soil survey.
Longitudinal and cross sectional profile.
 Plain Terrain` : 100 – 200m
 Rolling Terrain : 50m
 Hilly Terrain : 30m
• Other studies
 Drainage, Hydrological survey, soil survey, Traffic and
• Material survey.
138
Preliminary Survey
b) Modern rapid approach-
• By Aerial survey taking the
required aerial photographs for
obtaining the necessary topographic
and other maps including details of
soil and geology.

• Finalize the best alignment from

all considerations by comparative
analysis of alternative routes.

139
Final Location and Detailed Survey
• The alignment finalized at the design office after
the preliminary survey is to be first located on
the field by establishing the centre line.
•Location survey:
• Transferring the alignment on to ground.
• This is done by transit theodolite.
• Major and minor control points are established
on the ground and centre pegs are driven,
checking the geometric design requirements.
• Centre line stacks are driven at suitable
intervals, say 50m interval in plane and rolling
terrains and 20m in hilly terrain.

140
Transferring the alignment on to ground

141
Major and minor control points

142
Final Location and Detailed Survey
Detailed survey:
• Temporary bench marks are fixed at intervals of about 250m and at all
drainage and under pass structure.
• Earthwork calculations and drainage details are to be workout from the
level books.
• Cross sectional levels are taken at intervals of 50-100m in Plane terrain,
50-75m in Rolling terrain, 50m in built-up area, 20m in Hill terrain.
• Detail soil survey is to be carried out.
• CBR value of the soils along the alignment may be determined for
design of pavement.
• The data during detailed survey should be elaborate and complete for
preparing detailed plans, design and estimates of project.
143
 • Key map
Drawing and • Index map
Report • Preliminary survey plans
• Detailed plan and longitudinal section
144
Drawing and Report
 Detailed cross section
 Land acquisition plans
 Drawings of cross drainage and other retaining structures
 Drawings of road intersections
 Land plans showing quarries etc

145
New Highway Project
• Map study
• Reconnaissance survey
• Preliminary survey
• Location of final alignment
• Detailed survey
• Material survey
• Geometric and structural design
• Earth work
• Pavement construction
• Construction controls
146
Thank You.

147