CHAPTER

11

Applications and
Processing of Metallic
materials
 Introduction
 Ferrous alloys
 Nonferrous alloys
 Forming operations
 Casting
 Miscellaneous techniques
 Annealing processes
 Heat treatment of steels
 Precipitation hardening

2
 Chapter 11: Applications and
Processing of Metal Alloys

ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• How are metal alloys classified and what are their
common applications?
• What are some of the common fabrication techniques
for metals?
• What heat treatment procedures are used to improve the
mechanical properties of both ferrous and nonferrous alloys?

3
 Applications and Processing of Metal
Alloys

The aluminum beverage can

in various stages of
production.
The can is formed from a single
sheet of an aluminum alloy.
Production operations include
drawing ( 抽製 ), dome forming
( 圓頂成型 ), trimming ( 修
邊 ), cleaning, decorating ( 裝
飾 ), and
neck and flange forming
( 修頸與凸緣成型 ).

4
 Ferrous Alloys

Figure 11.1 Classification scheme

for the various ferrous alloys.

5
 Classification of Metal Alloys
Metal Alloys

Ferrous Nonferrous

Steels
Steels Cast Irons
Cast Irons
<1.4 wt%
<1.4wt%C C 3-4.5 wt%C
3-4.5 wt% C

T(ºC) microstructure: ferrite,

1600 graphite/cementite

1400 L

1200  +L 1148ºC L+Fe3C

austenite Eutectic:
1000 4.30

727ºC
+Fe3C
800 Fe3C
Eutectoid:
ferrite 0.76 cementite
60 +Fe3C
0
400 1 2 3 4 5 6
0
(Fe)
6.7 6
C , wt% C
 Steels
Low High
low carbon Alloy
Med carbon high carbon Alloy
<0.25 wt% C 0.25-0.6wt% C 0.6-1.4wt% C

heat
Name plain HSLA plain plain tool stainless
treatable
Cr,V Cr, Ni Cr, V,
Additions none none none Cr, Ni, Mo
Ni, Mo Mo Mo, W
Example 1010 4310 1040 4340 1095 4190 304, 409
Hardenability 0 + + ++ ++ +++ varies
TS - 0 + ++ + ++ varies
EL + + 0 - - -- ++
Uses auto bridges crank pistons wear drills high T
struc. towers shafts gears applic. saws applic.
sheet press. bolts wear dies turbines
vessels hammers applic. furnaces
blades Very
corros.
increasing strength, cost, decreasing ductility resistant
7
 Refinement of Steel from Ore
Coke
Iron Ore Limestone

BLAST FURNACE
heat generation
gas C+O 2 CO2
refractory
vessel reduction of iron ore to metal
layers of CO2 +C  2CO
coke
and ironair 3CO +Fe2O3 2Fe+3CO2
slag purification
ore CaCO3  CaO+CO2
Molten iron
CaO + SiO2 + Al2O3  slag

8
 Ferrous Alloys
Iron-based alloys
• Steels
• Cast Irons

Nomenclature for steels (AISI/SAE)

10xx Plain Carbon Steels
11xx Plain Carbon Steels (resulfurized for machinability) 15xx
Mn (1.00 - 1.65%)
40xx Mo (0.20 ~ 0.30%)
43xx Ni (1.65 - 2.00%), Cr (0.40 - 0.90%), Mo (0.20 - 0.30%)
44xx Mo (0.5%)
where xx is wt% C x 100
example: 1060 steel – plain carbon steel with 0.60 wt%
C
Stainless Steel >11% Cr
9
 Cast Irons
• Ferrous alloys with > 2.1 wt% C
– more commonly 3 - 4.5 wt%
C
• Low melting – relatively easy to
cast
• Generally brittle

• Cementite decomposes to ferrite + graphite

Fe3C  3 Fe () + C (graphite)

– generally a slow process 10

 Fe-C True Equilibrium Diagram
Cementite decomposes to
T(ºC)
ferrite + graphite 1600
Fe3C  3 Fe () + C
(graphite) 1400 L Liquid +
Graphite
Graphite formation 1200 
 +L
1153ºC
promoted by Austenite 4.2 wt% C
1000
• Si > 1 wt%  + Graphite

• slow cooling 800
740ºC
600 0.65
 + Graphite
400
0 1 2 3 4 90
(Fe)
100
C, wt% C
11
 Types of Cast Iron
Gray iron
• graphite flakes
• weak & brittle in tension
• stronger in compression
• excellent vibrational dampening
• wear resistant

Ductile iron
• add Mg and/or Ce
• graphite as nodules not flakes
• matrix often pearlite – stronger
but less ductile
12
Types of Cast Iron (cont.)
White iron
• < 1 wt% Si
• pearlite + cementite
• very hard and brittle

Malleable iron
• heat treat white iron at 800-900ºC
• graphite in rosettes
• reasonably strong and ductile

13
Types of Cast Iron (cont.)
Compacted graphite iron
• relatively high thermal conductivity
• good resistance to thermal shock
• lower oxidation at elevated
temperatures

14
Production of Cast Irons

15
 Limitations of Ferrous Alloys

1) Relatively high densities

2) Relatively low electrical conductivities
3) Generally poor corrosion resistance

16
 Nonferrous Alloys
• Cu Alloys • Al Alloys
Brass: Zn is subst. impurity -low : 2.7 g/cm3
(costume jewelry, coins, -Cu, Mg, Si, Mn, Zn additions
corrosion resistant) -solid sol. or precip.
Bronze : Sn, Al, Si, Ni are strengthened (struct.
subst. impurities (bushings, aircraft parts
landing & packaging)
gear) NonFerrous • Mg Alloys
Cu-Be :
precip. hardened Alloys -very low : 1.7g/cm3

for strength -ignites easily

• -aircraft, missiles
Ti Alloys • Refractory metals
-relatively low : 4.5 g/cm3
-high melting T’s
vs 7.9 for steel • Noble metals -Nb, Mo, W, Ta
-reactive at high T’s -Ag, Au, Pt
-space applic. -oxid./corr. resistant

17
 Introduction
 Ferrous alloys
 Nonferrous alloys
 Forming operations
 Casting
 Miscellaneous techniques
 Annealing processes
 Heat treatment of steels
 Precipitation hardening

18
 Metal Fabrication
• How do we fabricate metals?
– Blacksmith - hammer (forged)
– Cast molten metal into mold

• Forming Operations
– Rough stock formed to final
shape
Cold working
Hot working • Deformation below
vs. recrystallization
• Deformation temperature temperature
high enough for • Strain hardening
recrystallization occurs
• Large deformations • Small deformations
19
 Fabrication of Metals

鍛造 輥軋 擠製 抽製 砂模 鑄模 包覆模 消失模 連續模 焊接

粉末
冶金

Figure 11.7 Classification scheme of metal fabrication

techniques discussed in this chapter.

20
 Metal Fabrication Methods (i)

FORMING CASTING MISCELLANEOUS

• Forging (Hammering; Stamping) • Rolling (Hot or Cold Rolling)
(wrenches, crankshafts) (I-beams, rails, sheet & plate)
force
die roll
often at Ad
A o blank Ad elev. T Ao
roll

• Drawing force • Extrusion

(rods, wire, tubing) (rods, tubing)
die Ao container
Ad tensile die holder
Ao force force ram billet extrusion
Ad
die
container die
die must be well lubricated & clean ductile metals, e.g. Cu, Al (hot)
21
 Metal Fabrication Methods (ii)

FORMING CASTING MISCELLANEOUS

• Casting- mold is filled with molten metal

– metal melted in furnace, perhaps alloying
elements added, then cast in a mold
– common and inexpensive
– gives good production of shapes
– weaker products, internal defects
– good option for brittle materials

22
 Metal Fabrication Methods (iii)

FORMING CASTING MISCELLANEOUS

• Sand Casting
(large parts, e.g., auto
• What material will withstand T >1600ºC
engine blocks)
and is inexpensive and easy to mold?
• Answer: sand!!!
Sand Sand
• To create mold, pack sand around form
molten metal (pattern) of desired shape

23
 Metal Fabrication Methods (iv)

FORMING CASTING MISCELLANEOUS

• Investment Casting
(low volume, complex shapes
e.g., jewelry, turbine blades)
• Stage I — Mold formed by pouring wax I
plaster of paris around wax pattern.
Plaster allowed to harden.
• Stage II — Wax is melted and then
poured from mold—hollow mold
I
cavity remains. I
• Stage III — Molten metal is poured
into mold and allowed to solidify. II
I
24
 Metal Fabrication Methods (v)

FORMING CASTING MISCELLANEOUS

• Die Casting • Continuous Casting
-- high volume -- simple shapes
-- for alloys having low melting (e.g., rectangular slabs,
temperatures cylinders)

molten
solidified

25
 Metal Fabrication Methods (vi)

FORMING CASTING MISCELLANEOUS

• Powder Metallurgy • Welding
(metals w/low ductilities) (when fabrication of one large
part is impractical)
pressure
filler metal (melted)
base metal (melted)
fused base metal
heat
heat-affected zone
area unaffected unaffected
contact piece 1 piece 2
densify
• Heat-affected zone:
point contact densification (region in which the
at low T by diffusion at
higher T microstructure has been
changed).
26