MANUFACTURING

PROCESS

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• Manufacturing process can be broadly classified into
Shaping Process
Machining process
Joining Process
Finishing Process
Property changing process

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Shaping Process

• Process of making products by changing the shape of the raw material is called shaping
process.
• In shaping there is no removal of materials
• Example: casting, forging, rolling, extrusion etc.

3
Machining process

• It is the process of making products by removing unwanted materials from the available
raw material.
• To perform this process, it requires cutting tools or machines
• Example: turning, milling, drilling, grinding etc.

4
Joining Process

• It is the process of making products by joining two or parts together

• Example: welding, soldering, brazing etc.

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Finishing Process

• It is the process of making final product by which required surface finish is obtained by
removing very low amount of materials or by providing protective coating
• Since the material removal is less, it is not considered as a material removal process
• Example: honing, lapping, electroplating, galvanizing etc.

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Property changing process
• The processes which are performed in order to change the physical property of the material
is called property changing process
• Example: annealing, normalizing, hardening, tempering etc.

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MODULE

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 CASTING
Casting

• The process of producing metallic parts of desired shape and size by adding molten metal
into the cavity of the desired part to be made is called casting.
• The desired shape can be obtained after solidification of the molten metal

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Sand casting
• If the casting is done with the help of sand mould, then it is called sand mould casting or
simply sand casting

• It is also known as sand molded casting

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Mould
• A hollow container or cavity which is used to give shape to molten/hot materials when it
cools and hardens.

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Moulding
• The process of making mould is called moulding
• The mould is made with the help of a pattern

Pattern
• It is the replica or model of the final product to be cast
• Wood is the commonly used pattern
• Metals can also be used when large number of casting has to be made
• Other materials: plastic, plaster of paris, wax etc.

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Moulding Box
• The sand moulds are prepared in special boxes called moulding box
• Also called moulding flask
• can be made of wood, cast, steel

• 3 parts
• Cope top most part
• Cheek middle part
• Drag lower part

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• Sectional view of sand mould

Molten metal
Pouring basin

Sprue cope
riser
Core pin
Mould cavity

drag
gate board

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 Characteristics of Molding Sand
Strength
• The ability of the sand mold to hold its geometric shape under the conditions of mechanical stress.
Permeability
• The ability of a sand mold to permit the escape of gases and steam during the casting process.
Moisture Content
• Moisture content affects a mold’s strength and permeability: a mold with too little moisture may
break apart, while a mold with too much moisture can cause steam bubbles to be entrapped in the
casting.
Flowability
• The capacity of the sand to fill small cavities in the pattern.
• High flowability creates a more precise mold, and is therefore useful for detailed castings.
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Grain Size
• The size of the individual particles of sand.

• Typical grain size varies from 50 microns to 3360 microns

Grain Shape
• This property evaluates the shape of the individual grains of sand based on how round they are.

• Generally, three grain categories are used in foundry sand:

• Rounded Grain sands :provide relatively poor bonding strength, but good flowability and surface finish .

• Angular Grains: have greater bonding strength because of interlocking, but poorer flowability and
permeability than rounded grain sands.

• Sub-angular Grains :They possess better strength and lower permeability relative to rounded grains, but
lower strength and better permeability than angular grains. 16
Collapsibility

• The ability of the sand mixture to collapse under force.

Refractory Strength

• The mold must not melt, burn, or crack as molten metal is poured into it.

• Refractory strength measures the ability of molding sand to withstand extreme heat.

Reusability

• The ability of molding sand to be reused (after sand conditioning) to produce other sand castings in
subsequent manufacturing operations.

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Cohesiveness

• The ability of sand particles to stick together

• Cohesiveness depends on

 Grain size

 Grain shape

 Bonding material

 Moisture content

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Adhesiveness

• Due to adhesiveness sand mass is held in molding box properly and doesn't fall while working

• Sand must not stick to the casting and should strip off easily, leaving a clean surface

Plasticity
• The condition of acquiring predetermined shape under pressure and to retain it when the pressure is
removed

• In order to have a good impression of the pattern in the mould, the sand must have good plasticity

Chemical resistivity (Chemical stability)

• Must not chemically react or combine with molten metal

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 Pa
tte
20
r ns
 Pattern:
A Pattern is a model or the replica of the object to be cast.

Except for the various allowances a pattern exactly resembles the casting to be made.

Patterns may be in two or three pieces, where as casting are in a single piece.

A pattern is required even if one object has to be cast.

The quality of casting and the final product will be effected to a great extent by the
design of pattern.

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 Functions of Patterns:
 A Pattern prepares a mould cavity for the purpose of making a casting.

 A Pattern may contain projections known as core prints if the casting requires a
core and need to be made hollow.

 Risers, runners and gates may form a part of the pattern.

 Patterns properly made and having finished and smooth surfaces reduce casting
defects.

 Properly constructed patterns minimize overall cost of the casting.

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 Selection of Pattern Materials:
The following factors assist in selecting proper pattern material:
No. of castings to be produced.

Metal to be cast.

Dimensional accuracy & surface finish.

Shape, complexity and size of casting.

Casting design parameters.

Type of molding materials.

The chance of repeat orders.

Nature of molding process.

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The pattern material should be:
1. Easily worked, shaped and joined.
2. Light in weight.
3. Strong, hard and durable.
4. Resistant to wear and abrasion .
5. Resistant to corrosion, and to chemical reactions.
6. Dimensionally stable and unaffected by variations in temperature and
humidity.
7. Available at low cost.

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Materials for making patterns:

a. Wood
b. Metal
c. Plastic
d. Plaster
e. Wax

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 TYPES OF
PATTERNS

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Types of Patterns:
1. Single piece pattern.

2. Split piece pattern.

3. Loose piece pattern.

4. Match plate pattern.

5. Sweep pattern.

6. Gated pattern.

7. Skeleton pattern

8. Follow board pattern.

9. Cope and Drag pattern.

10. Segmental pattern 27

 1. Single piece (solid) pattern:
• Made from one piece and does not contain loose pieces or joints.
• Made up of wood or metal
• Accommodated either in cope or drag
ADVANTAGES
• Inexpensive.
• Simplest type
LIMITATION
• Molding operations are difficult & time consuming
• Producing less no: of casting
Examples:
1. Bodies of regular shapes.
2. Used for large size simple castings.

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 2. Split piece pattern:
• Used for intricate castings because of the difficulties associated with the molding operations
• Upper and lower parts of patterns are accommodated in cope and drag respectively.
• Parting line of the pattern forms the parting line of the mould.
• Dowel pins are used .
• Also made in more than two piece
• Examples:
1. Taps, Valves etc.

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 3.Loose piece pattern:
• Used when patterns are difficult to with drawn once they are embedded in the molding sand.
• Usually made with one or more loose pieces
• Loose parts or pieces remain attached with the main body of the pattern, with the help of dowel
pins.
• First the main body is drawn first from the molding box, then loose parts

DISADVANTAGE
• More labour
• More time

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 4. Match plate pattern:
• It consists of a match plate
• On either side, each half of split patterns is fastened.
• A no. of different sized and shaped patterns may be mounted on one match plate.
• The match plate is clamped with the drag.
• Locator holes are there
• After the cope and drag have been rammed with the molding sand, the match plate pattern is
removed from in between the cope and drag.
ADVANTAGES
• Eliminate mismatch of cope and drag cavities.
• High accuracy
• High production rate
APPLICATION
• Normally used in machine molding.
• Producing small casting on mass scale
• IC Engine piston ring 31
 5. Sweep pattern:
• It is just a form made on a wooden board
• It sweeps the shape of the casting into the sand all around the circumference.
• They rotates about the post.
• Once the mold is ready, sweep pattern and the post can be removed.
ADVANTAGES
• Avoids the necessity of making a full, large circular and costly three-dimensional pattern.
• saves a lot of time and labour
• Used both in dry & green sand
APPLICATIONS
• For producing large casting of circular sections and symmetrical shapes.
• Manufacturing large kettles

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33
 6. Gated pattern:
• Sections connecting different patterns serve as runner and gates.
• Helps in filling of the mould with molten metal in a better manner
• Eliminates the time and labour otherwise consumed in cutting runners and gates.
ADVANTAGE
• Can manufacture many casting at one time
APPLICATIONS
• Used in mass production systems.
• For producing small castings.

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 castings

Gating system

35
 7. Skeleton pattern:
• For very large castings solid patterns would require a tremendous amount of timber. Hence, it is
not economical. In such cases the pattern is made of wooden frame and rib construction ( i.e
skeleton) so that it will form a partial exterior or interior outline of the casting.
• It is the skeleton of a desired shape
• May be S-bend pipe or a chute
• The skeleton frame is mounted on a metal base
• The skeleton pattern is filled with sand and is rammed.
• A strickle (board) assists in giving the desired shape to the sand and removes extra sand.
APPLICATIONS
• Employed for producing a few large castings.
• Turbine casing, water pipes, bends etc
ADVANTAGE
• Very economical, because it involves less material costs.
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 8. Follow board pattern:
• It is a wooden board
• It used for supporting very thin pattern which may collapse under pressure when the sand above
the pattern is being rammed.
• Follow board support is kept under the weak pattern
• Then drag is rammed
• Then the follow board is with drawn
• Rammed drag is inverted
• Cope is mounted on it and rammed.
• During this operation pattern remains over the inverted drag
• Get support from the rammed sand of the drag under it.
• Used for casting master patterns for many applications.

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 9. Cope and Drag patterns:
• It is another form of split pattern.
• Split about a convenient surface or line
• Each half is fixed to a separate metal/wood plate.
• Metal plate has the provision for runner & riser
• Each half of the pattern(along the plate) is molded separately
• The two moulds of each half of the pattern are finally assembled
• It is used for producing big castings which as a whole cannot be conveniently handled by one
molder alone.

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 10) Segmental pattern
• Resembles sweep pattern
• Both employ a portion or part of the pattern
• Both generate circular shapes
• It does not revolve about the post
• Prepares mould by parts
• Completes one stage then moves to next
• Big gears, wheels etc.

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 PATTERN
ALLOWANCES

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 Pattern Allowances:
• A pattern is larger in size as compared to the final casting

• Because it carries certain allowances due to metallurgical and mechanical reasons

• shrinkage allowance is the result of metallurgical phenomenon

• Machining, draft, distortion, shake and other allowances are provided on the patterns because of
mechanical reasons.

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Types of Pattern Allowances:
The various pattern allowances are:
1. Shrinkage or contraction allowance.
2. Machining or finishing allowance.
3. Draft of tapper allowances.
4. Distortion or chamber allowance.
5. Shake or rapping allowance.

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 1.Shrinkage Allowance:
• Almost all cast metals shrink or contract volumetrically after solidification
 pattern is made oversize by an amount equal to that of shrinkage or contraction.
 Different metals shrink at different rates
The metal shrinkage is of two types:
1. Liquid Shrinkage:
• reduction in volume when the metal changes from liquid state to solid state.
• account for this shrinkage is done by molten metal in riser,
2. Solid Shrinkage:
• reduction in volume caused when metal loses temperature in solid state.
• To account for this, shrinkage allowance is provided on the patterns.

The metal shrinkage depends upon:

1. The cast metal or alloy.
2. Pouring temp. of the metal/alloy.
3. Casted dimensions(size).
4. Casting design aspects.
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5. Molding conditions
 2. Machining Allowance:
• Castings get oxidized & scales will form
• Happens when it is in the mold and during heat treatment
• It can be removed by machining
Machining allowance is provided
 To remove surface roughness and other imperfections from the castings.
 to achieve exact casting dimensions.
 Get high Surface finish
how much machining allowance provided, depends on :
i. Nature of metals.
ii. Size and shape of casting.
iii. The type of machining operations
iv. Casting conditions.
v. Molding process employed
vi. Surface finish 44
 3. Draft or Taper Allowance:
 Provided for the easy removal of pattern from the molding material with out damaging the mould
cavity.
 Given to all surfaces perpendicular to parting line.
amount of taper depends upon:
i. Shape and size of pattern in the depth direction in contact with the mould cavity.
ii. Moulding methods.
iii. Mould materials.
•Provided at internal as well as external surfaces
•more on internal surfaces.

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46
 4. Distortion or cambered allowance:
A casting will distort or wrap if :
i. It is of irregular shape,
ii. All it parts do not shrink uniformly
iii. It is u or v-shape,
iv. They possess unequal thickness,
v. It is a long flat casting,
vi. One portion cools at a faster rate as compared to the other.
• Eliminated by providing an allowance & constructing the pattern initially distorted
• But in the opposite direction
• Amount may vary from 2 to 20 mm

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 5. Shake allowance:
 When a pattern is rapped or shake in the mould before it is withdrawn, the cavity in the mould is
slightly increased
 This makes the removal of pattern more easy
 Shaken by striking with a wooden piece from side to side.
 Pattern get a little loosened in the mold cavity and can be easily removed.
 Rapping enlarges the mould cavity which results in a bigger sized casting.
 Hence, a –ve allowance is provided on the pattern
 The magnitude of shake allowance can be reduced by increasing the tapper.
 Provided only to large castings

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 ES & C O R E PRI N TS
COR

GS, SCTCE
Core
• It can be defined as a sand shape or form that is inserted into the mold to produce the internal
features of a casting, such as holes or passages for water cooling
• It is a separate material which forms component of the mould
• Can be handled as an independent unit
• It is an obstruction which does not allow molten metal to fill up its space
• It produces hollow castings
• Used to create recess, under cuts, & interior cavities
• Produced separately & then baked
• Made up of sand, metal, plaster or ceramics
• Some times cores may require supports to hold it in position in the mold cavity during pouring,
called chaplets

• A core consists of two portions:

a) The body of the core and

b) one or more extensions called prints

 The body of the core is surrounded by molten metal during casting process.

 Body of core has all the features which are required in final internal surface
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 Core Print:

• It is a region added to the pattern, core, or mold which is used to locate and support the core within mold

• The prints are necessary to support core in the mould.

• They form core seats in the mould

• In short they are extra projections provided on pattern

• They also conduct the heat (and gases produced by a sand core) to the mould.

• Core seats support the core against buoyancy of molten metal

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Purpose of cores

• Form a part of green sand mould

• Provide external undercut features

• Improve mould surface

• To achieve deep recesses in castings

• To strengthen the mould

• Some times mould may completed by assembling the core pieces

• Used to form the gating system of large size moulds

GS, SCTCE
 CASTING DEFECTS

• It is an unwanted irregularities that appear in the casting during metal casting process.

• Casting defects are broadly classified into

1. Gas Porosity:

Eg:- Blowholes, open holes, pinholes

2. Shrinkage defects:

Eg:- shrinkage cavity

3. Mold material defects:

Eg:- Cut and washes, swell, drops, metal penetration, rat tail

4. Pouring metal defects:

Eg:- Cold shut, misrun, slag inclusion

5. Metallurgical defects:
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Eg:- Hot tears, hot spot.
 Gas Porosity

• When cast metal solidifies in a mold, it can’t hold as much gas as it does in liquid form, so it releases it.

 Shrinkage Defects

• Shrinkage defects appear because metal alloys shrink as they cool.

• However, defects occur when the metal shrinks unevenly, causing it to either distort the shape of the final product or create interior holes.

• This can also stress the metal.

 Mold Material Defects

• Mold material defects are caused by the mold material

• They can also be caused by mold design problems.

• This makes up the largest category of casting defects

 Pouring Metal Defects

• These defects appear when temperatures are too low during the pouring process.

 Metallurgical Defects
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• Metallurgical defects show up when there are problems in the metal of a casting.
 Pinholes

• Also known as porosities

• Pinholes are smaller holes in the upper part of a casting.

• They’re usually in groups near or at the casting’s surface and visible to the naked eye.

 Blowholes

• Blowholes are larger holes that can appear in the inside of a cast piece.

• Invisible to the naked eye

• Interior blowholes are detectable by x-ray, harmonic, ultrasonic, or magnetic analysis.

 Open Holes

• A type of blowhole

• Open holes appear at the piece’s surface.

• These defects are caused by air getting trapped as metal is poured into the mold.
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• There is also a shallow variant of open holes called a scar.
 Cuts and Washes

• Cuts and washes are caused when the liquid metal erodes away part of the mold when pouring in and the sand
doesn’t have enough heat strength to resist it.

• Washes and cuts show up as low bulges along a surface of the finished product, tilted toward one end where the
molten metal had more force as it flowed in.

 Swells

• Swells show up as a swollen area on the finished piece.

• These defects happen when the mold is too soft, so that the weight of the liquid metal pushes the sand outward.

 Drops

• Drops show up as irregular bumps on the tops of castings.

• They’re caused when the mold is weak and sand falls into the liquid metal.
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• Drops also make the metal surface dirty.
 Runout

• Runout happens when the mold leaks, leaving an inadequate amount of metal to form

the desired casting.

 Fusion

• Fusion shows up as a glassy looking crust on the surface of a cast piece.

• It happens when some of the sand in the mold melts and fuses with the casting.

 Metal Penetration

• When sand grains are both loose and large, molten metal can penetrate into the mold, creating a rough surface in the casting.

 Rat Tails

• Rat tails, also known as veins

• They are irregular lines along a casting’s surface caused when the heat of the molten metal makes the sand expand.

• Buckles are more extreme versions of rat tails.

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 Cold Shot

• Cold shot is balls or drops loosely attached to the casting

• They form due to the left over from splatters of molten metal as it was being poured.

• Since they’re smaller, the splatters cool before the rest of the casting and become embedded or attached.

 Cold Shut

• Cold shuts occur when metal flows into a mold from two or more points

• But it’s too cold to merge into a seamless piece.

• Hence it creates a crack through the middle with rounded edges, which becomes a weak spot in the casting.

 Misruns

• Misruns happen when the metal is so cool and it solidifies before it can fill the entire mold.

• Misruns show up as castings with parts missing. 59

 Slag Inclusion

• Slag inclusion happens when metal isn’t properly cleared of slag before being poured.

• It simply means the finished casting will have impurities or foreign material embedded in it.

• When the inclusion is dirt, castings will have a honeycomb or spongy look.

 Hot Tears

• Hot tears, also known as hot cracks

• They show up when the cooling metal contracts.

• In this state, when the metal is still weak, residual stress in the metal or poor mold design can cause the metal to pull apart, resulting in
branching, irregular cracks.

• Sometimes these are difficult to see with the naked eye.

 Hot Spots

• Also known as hard spots

• These defects occur when certain parts of a casting cool off faster than the areas around them

• Hence they creates some harder parts of the casting.

• These can wear out tools and interfere in the machining process. 60
 Mismatches

• Mismatches, also known as shifts

• Occur when different parts of a casting come out misaligned with each other, usually horizontally.

 Flash

• Also called casting fins or burrs

• Flash shows up as extra material attached to the casting, usually as a thin sheet that forms where parts of a mold
meet.

• Flash is one of the most common casting defects.

 Surface roughness

• Too coarse a moulding sand or when pouring temperature is high, it would lead to rough or pebbly surface on
castings
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• It may lead to sub-surface porosity or pinholes
Sponginess or Honey combing

• It is an external defect

• It is caused by dirt or swarf held in the molten

• It may occur also due to imperfect skimming and poor quality of molten metal

Pour short

• It refers to the condition of incomplete filling of mould due to insufficient metal in the ladle and
interruptions during pouring operation

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 PRINCIPLES OF GATING

•Gating system refers to all passage ways through which the molten metal passes

•Gating system consists of

oPouring cups & basins

oSprue

oRunner

oGates

oRisers

•Quality of the cast depends up on the way in which liquid metal enters into the mould

•So the passage should be carefully designed

•Gating system should avoid sudden right angles

•If possible gating system should be a part of the pattern

 FUNCTIONS OF GATING SYSTEM
• Fill the mould cavity fully before freezing

• Introduce molten metal into the cavity at low velocity

• Promote temperature gradient favorable for directional solidification

• Trap the foreign particles present in the molten metal

• Regulate the rate of flow of molten metal into the mould cavity

• Consume only less metal/means loss should be minimum

o Pouring cups
• It is a funnel shaped cup which forms the top of sprue
• They makes it easy for the ladle operator to pour the molten metal from crucible to sprue
• Made up of sand
o Pouring basins
• Made of core sand or metal
• makes it easy for the ladle operator to pour the molten metal from crucible to sprue
• Maintain the required rate of flow of molten metal through sprue
• Reduce turbulence & vortexing
o Sprues
• It feeds the molten metal to the runner
• Sprue is tapered with its bigger end at top
• Up to 20 mm dia they are round whereas larger sprues are often rectangular
• Less turbulence in rectangular sprues
• Round sprue have low resistance to flow & slow cooling due to minimum exposed surface
 GATES
Channel which connects runner with mould cavity
Size of gate depends on rate of solidification
For a fast freeze casting more than one gates are used
Gate should not have sharp edges as they may break the mould during pouring & it may
cause localized delay in freezing
Gate basin
• Acts as a reservoir of molten metal
• Trap inclusions
• Prevents turbulence
Types of gate
• Top gate
• Bottom gate
• Parting line side gate
GS, SCTCE
 DESIGN OF GATING SYSTEM
 OBJECTIVES
• To fill the mould cavity rapidly without breaking the mould & the flow of liquid metal
• To avoid erosion of cores
• To stop scum, slag, eroded particles & other inclusions
• To minimize turbulence & associated problems
• Prevent aspiration of air or mould gases in the molten metal stream
• To obtain favorable temperature gradient to promote directional solidification
 Defects occurring due to improper design of gating system
• Oxidation of metal
• Inclusion of slag & other foreign particles
• Cold shuts
• Mould erosion
• Rough surfaces
• Shrinkage
• Porosity
• Honey combing
GS, SCTCE
• Misruns etc.
Choke

• The choke is the smallest cross-sectional area in the gating system

• It is used to control flow

• It can be placed near the sprue

• Its function is to slow down and smooth out the flow.

• On some molds the choke is still placed on the gates to make separation of the part easier, but
induces extreme turbulence

• The gates are usually attached to the bottom of the casting to minimize turbulence and
splashing.

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 Pouring Time

• Time required for filling a mould is pouring time.

• Fast pouring times are normally thought to be advantageous to the reduction of inclusions.

• The shortest practical pouring time will normally produce the best casting.

• Short pouring times decrease the exposure of molding sands to moving metal and minimize the time available for reoxidation.

• However, too less pouring time can cause turbulent flow & defective casting.

• High pouring rates leads to mould erosion, rough surface, excessive shrinkages etc

• It depends on casting material, complexity of casting, section thickness and casting size.

• Pouring time is calculated by empirical formulas obtained by experiments which differ from one material to another and one
casting to other.

• For non ferrous material, long pouring time would be beneficial since they lose heat slowly and also tend to form dross if
metal is poured too quickly.

• Too long pouring time requires higher pouring temperature

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 PRINCIPLE OF RISE RING
•Molten metal rises up through riser after filling the mould cavity

•Main function of riser is to avoid shrinkage cavities formed during solidification of molten metal

•Riser permits the escape of air & mould gases

•It act as indicator to ensure that the mould cavity is filled

• Riser & directional solidification are interrelated because, if solidification proceeds directionally from
casting towards riser, a good casting will obtain

• Riser size can be reduced by extracting heat more quickly from the casting than from the riser,
directional solidification can be achieved.

GS, SCTCE
Riser design

• The riser must be large enough to remain liquid after the solidified and must contain sufficient metal to
provide for the contraction losses

• Riser should be positioned in such a way that they continue to supply metal throughout the solidification
period

• The most efficient shape of a riser of a certain size is that which results in a minimum of the heat loss, thus
remaining hot and keeping the metal molten state as long as possible

• Riser should be designed with minimum possible volume while marinating a cooling rate slower than that
of casting

• The best shape is cylindrical

• The height should be tall enough so that any pipe formed in it may not penetrate the casting
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• The ratio of height to diameter varies from 1:1 to 3:2
Caine’s Method

• It is a rule/technique used to determine the optimum riser diameter for a given casting

• This method is based on the relative freezing time of the casting and the riser

• It defines the relative freezing time to complete the solidification as the ratio of surface area of
casting divided by volume of the casting : surface are of riser divided by volume of the riser

surface area of casting / volume of the casting

The relative freezing time to complete the solidification =
Surface area of riser/ volume of the riser

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• According to Caine

i) if the casting solidifies infinitely rapidly

Then the feeder (riser) volume should be equal to the solidification shrinkage of the casting

ii) If the riser and casting solidify at the same rate

Then the riser should be infinitely large

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74
• Chvorinov’s rule is the basic rule used for determining the solidification time in metal casting

• We know the equation to find solidification time according to Chvorinov is

• Since the riser act as a reservoir during the shrinkage of molten metal in cast, the solidification time
in riser will be greater than solidification time in casting

• Hence we can write

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• Another equation to find solidification time is (Chvorinov’s rule)

76
Qn

• Here

77
78
 (Vc) =>
(Ac) =>

(Vr) =>

(Ar) =>

GS, SCTCE
CHILLS

• Chills are metal shapes inserted in the mould to speed up the solidification of a particular portion
of the casting

• Chills equalize the cooling rate of thin & thick sections

• Chills promote progressive & directional solidification

• Chills are used to retard the formation of graphite

• Chills becomes necessary when it is not possible to locate a riser on the casting.

GS, SCTCE
Chills are classified into
o External chills
• It is rammed up in the mould
• External chills are generally made up of steel, cast iron or copper
• External chills work effectively at junctions or other portions of the casting which are difficult to feed by
risers
o Direct external chills
• Attached to the mould cavity wall
• comes in direct contact with liquid metal
o Indirect external chills
• Rammed & embedded behind the mould cavity
• Does not come direct contact with molten metal
o Internal Chills
• They fuse into & become part of the casting
• So it should be made of the same metal as that of the casting
• Internal chills are used in positions were external chills cannot reach
 Shell Moulding (Shell Mold Casting)

• In this process, a mounted pattern made of a ferrous metal or aluminum is heated to a temperature range of 175° to 370°C

• Then it is coated with a parting agent such as silicone

• The pattern is then clamped to a box or chamber.

• The box contains fine sand, mixed with 2.5 to 4% of a thermosetting resin binder (such as phenol formaldehyde)

• Thus these resins coats the sand particles.

• The box is rotated upside down (or the sand mixture is blown over the pattern).

• The assembly is then placed in an oven for a short period of time to complete the curing of the resin.

82
• The shell hardens around the pattern and is removed from the pattern using built-in ejector pins.

• Two half-shells are made in this manner

• These halves are bonded or clamped together to form a mold.

• Then mold is ready for pouring

• This process is also called as Carning or C process.

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 Advantages

• Very suitable for thin sections like petrol engine cylinder.

• Excellent surface finish.

• Good dimensional accuracy of order of 0.002 to 0.003 mm.

• Negligible machining and cleaning cost.

• Occupies less floor space.

• Skill-ness required is less.

• Molds can be stored until required.

• Better quality of casting assured.

• Mass production

• The thickness of the shell can be determined accurately by controlling the time that the pattern is in contact with the mold.

• In this way, the shell can be formed with the required strength and rigidity to hold the weight of the molten liquid.

• The shells are light and thin—usually 5 to 10 mm

• The high quality of the finished casting can reduce cleaning, machining, and other finishing costs significantly.
84
• Complex shapes can be produced with less labor, and the process can be automated fairly easily.
Disadvantages

• Initial cost is high.

• Specialized equipment is required.

• Resin binder is an expensive material.

• Limited for small size.

85
Applications

• Suitable for production of casting made up of alloys of Al, Cu and ferrous metals

• Bushing

• Valves bodies

• Rocker arms

• Bearing caps

• Brackets

• Gears

86
 Investment Casting

• The pattern is made of wax, or of a plastic such as polystyrene

• The pattern is then dipped into a slurry of refractory material such as very fine silica and binders

• The binder is made of water, ethyl silicate, and acids

• Hence a refractory coating can be made on the surface of pattern

• The mould along with the pattern is dried in air

87
• This is then heated to a temperature of 90° to 175°C

• It is held in an inverted position for a few hours to melt out the wax.

• The mold is then fired to 650° to 1050°C for about four hours (depending on the metal to be cast) to drive off
the water and to burn off any residual wax

• After the metal has been poured and has solidified, the mold is broken up and the casting is removed

88
• The term investment derives from the fact that the pattern is invested (surrounded) with the refractory
material.

• Unlike plastic patterns, wax can be recovered and reused.

• A number of patterns can be joined to make one mold, called a tree, significantly increasing the
production rate

• Master patterns are made with brass or steel

• Wax pattern is also called lost-pattern

• Wax pattern is used for making final casting

 Other names

 Precision casting (because of the high dimensional accuracy and good surface finish obtained)

 Lost wax process 89

• The ceramic mould, known as the investment, is produced by three repeating steps: coating, stuccoing,
and hardening.

• The first step involves dipping the cluster into a slurry of fine refractory material

• Then letting any excess drain off

• So a uniform smooth surface is produced.

• In the second step, the cluster is stuccoed with a coarse ceramic particle

• This is done by dipping it into a fluidised bed, placing it in a rainfall-sander, or by applying by hand.

• Finally, the coating is allowed to harden.

• These steps are repeated until the investment achieves the required thickness (5 to 15 mm)

• The first coatings are known as prime coats.

• Common refractory materials used are: silica, zircon, various aluminium silicates, and alumina. 90
Applications

• Typical parts made are components for office equipment, as well as mechanical components such as
gears, cams, valves, and ratchets

• Used to produce complete aircraft door frames

• Used in the aerospace and power generation industries to produce turbine blades with complex
shapes or cooling systems

• Widely used by firearms manufacturers to fabricate firearm receivers, triggers, hammers, and other
precision parts at low cost.

• Other industries include military, medical, commercial and automotive.

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Advantages

• The castings have a good surface finish with fine details.

• Although the mold materials and labor involved make the lost-wax process costly, it is suitable for
casting high-melting-point alloys with good surface finish and close dimensional tolerances; few or
no finishing operations

• The process is capable of producing intricate shapes

• Accuracy, repeatability, versatility and integrity in a variety of metals and alloys.

• Requires little surface finishing and only minor machining.

92
Disadvantages

• It is generally more expensive per unit than die casting or sand casting

• Suitable for small size parts

• Some difficulty where cores are to be used

93
 Centrifugal Casting (rotocasting)
• A permanent mould is rotated continuously about its axis at high speeds (300 to 3000 rpm) as the molten metal is poured.

• The molten metal is centrifugally thrown towards the inside mould wall, where it solidifies after cooling.

• The centrifugal-casting process utilizes inertial forces (caused by rotation) to distribute the molten metal into the mold
cavities

• The axis of rotation is usually horizontal, but can be vertical for short workpieces.

• The mold surfaces can be shaped so that pipes with various external designs can be cast.

• The inner surface of the casting remains cylindrical, because the molten metal is distributed uniformly by the centrifugal
forces.

94
• The casting is usually a fine-grained casting with a very fine-grained outer diameter

• Impurities and inclusions are thrown to the surface of the inside diameter, which can be machined
away.

• Casting machines may be either horizontal or vertical-axis

• Horizontal axis machines are preferred for long, thin cylinders, vertical machines for rings.

• Most castings are solidified from the outside first.

95
 Features of Centrifugal Casting

• Castings can be made in almost any length, thickness and diameter.

• Different wall thicknesses can be produced from the same size mould.

• Eliminates the need for cores.

• Resistant to atmospheric corrosion

• Excellent mechanical properties

• Cylinders and shapes with rotational symmetry are most commonly cast by this technique.

• Eg:- railway carriage wheels or machine fittings

• Providing that the shape is relatively constant in radius, non circular shapes may also be cast.

• Only cylindrical shapes can be produced with this process.

• Size limits are up to 3 m diameter and 15 m length.

• Wall thickness range from 2.5 mm to 125 mm 96

Applications

• Hollow cylindrical parts (such as pipes, gun barrels, bushings, engine-cylinder liners, bearing rings
with or without flanges, and street lampposts) are produced

• Semi centrifugal Casting can be is used to cast parts with rotational symmetry, such as a wheel with
spokes

97
 Permanent-mold Casting

• Also called gravity die casting or hard-mold casting

• A permanent mold casting makes use of a mold or metallic die which is permanent

• Two halves of a mold are made from materials with high resistance to erosion and thermal fatigue,
such as cast iron, steel, bronze, graphite, or refractory metal alloys.

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Process

• The molds are clamped together by mechanical means and heated to about 150° to 200°C, to
facilitate metal flow and reduce thermal damage to the dies due to high-temperature gradients.

• Molten metal is then poured through the gating system.

• Molten metal is poured into the mold under gravity only and no external pressure is applied to force
the liquid metal into the mold cavity.

• However, the liquid metal solidifies under pressure of metal in the risers, etc

• After solidification, the molds are opened and the casting is removed.

• The metallic mold can be reused many times before it is discarded or rebuilt

• The mold is made in two halves in order to facilitate the removal of casting from the mold
99
• The mold cavity and gating system are machined into the mold and thus become an integral part of it

• In order to increase the life of permanent molds, the surfaces of the mold cavity usually are coated
with a refractory slurry (such as sodium silicate and clay) or sprayed with graphite after every
castings.

• Mechanical ejectors (such as pins located in various parts of the mold) may be required for the
removal of complex castings

100
Applications

• Typical parts made are automobile pistons, cylinder heads, connecting rods, gear blanks for
appliances, and kitchenware.

101
 Advantages

• Permanent-mold casting produces castings with a good surface finish, close dimensional tolerances,
uniform and good mechanical properties, and at high production rates.

• Although equipment costs can be high because of high die costs, labor costs are kept low through
automation.

• Fine and dense grained structure is achieved in the casting.

• No blow holes exist in castings produced by this method.

• The process is economical for mass production.

• Because of rapid rate of cooling, the castings possess fine grain structure.

• Casting defects observed in sand castings are eliminated.

102
Disadvantages

• The process is not economical for small production runs and is not suitable for intricate shapes,
because of the difficulty in removing the casting from the mold

• The cost of metallic mold is higher than the sand mold.

• The process is impractical for large castings.

• The surface of casting becomes hard due to chilling effect.

• Refractoriness of the high melting point alloys.

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Die Casting

• The die-casting process is an example of permanent-mold casting.

• This process is also called pressure die casting

• In the die-casting process, molten metal is forced into the meatallic die cavity at pressures ranging
from 0.7 to 700 MPa

• The pressure is generally created by compressed air or hydraulically means.

• The application of high pressure causes the liquid metal to inject into the mould cavity

• There are two basic types of die-casting machines:

hot-chamber (hot-chamber die casting) and

cold-chamber machines (cold-chamber die casting).

104
Hot-chamber Die Casting

• The hot-chamber process involves the use of a piston, which forces a certain volume of metal into
the die cavity through a gooseneck and nozzle.

105
• A die casting machine consists of basic elements namely

frame

source of molten metal

molten metal transfer mechanism

die-casting dies

metal injection mechanism

• The metal is contained in an open holding pot, which is placed in the furnace and melted to the needed
temperature.

• When the plunger is in the “up” position, the molten metal flows into the shot chamber.

• As the plunger moves down, it forces the molten metal through a gooseneck and into the die
106
• After solidification, the plunger is retracted and the cast part is either ejected, manually removed
from the machine

• The plunger remains in the “down” position to hold the pressure while the casting “cools off.”

• The metal is held under pressure until it solidifies in the die.

• Pressures range from 15 to 35 Mpa

• To improve die life and to aid in rapid metal cooling (thereby reducing cycle time) dies usually are
cooled by circulating water or oil through various passageways in the die block.

• Low-melting point alloys (such as zinc, magnesium, tin, and lead) commonly are cast using this
process.

107
Cold-chamber Die Casting

• In the cold-chamber process, melting unit is generally not an integral part of the cold chamber die
casting machine.

• Molten metal is brought and poured into die casting machine with help of ladles.

• Molten metal poured into the cold chamber casting machine is generally at lower temperature as
compared to that poured in hot chamber die casting machine.

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• After the molten metal is poured into the injection cylinder (shot chamber), the metal is forced into
the die cavity at pressures usually ranging from 20 to 70 MPa

• As the chamber is not heated—hence the term cold chamber.

• High-melting-point alloys of aluminum, magnesium, and copper normally are cast using this
method, although other metals (including ferrous metals) also can be cast.

• Molten-metal temperatures start at about 600°C for aluminum and some magnesium alloys, and
increase considerably for copper-based and iron-based alloys

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Applications

• Carburetor bodies

• Hydraulic brake cylinders

• Refrigeration castings

• Washing machine

• Connecting rods and automotive pistons

• Oil pump bodies

• Gears and gear covers

• Aircraft and missile castings, and

• Typewriter segments

• Typical parts made by die casting are housings, business-machine and appliance components, hand-tool
110
components, and toys.
 Advantages

• It is very quick process

• It is used for mass production

• castings produced by this process are greatly improved surface finish

• Thin section (0.5 mm Zn, 0.8 mm Al and 0.7 mm Mg) can be easily casted

• Good tolerances

• Well defined and distinct surface

• Less nos. of rejections

• Cost of production is less

• Process require less space

• Very economic process

• Life of die is long

• All casting has same size and shape.

• Equipment costs, particularly the cost of dies, are somewhat high, but labor costs are generally low, because the process is semi- or fully automated.

• Die casting is economical for large production runs. 111

Disadvantages

• Cost of die is high.

• Only thin casting can be produced.

• Special skill is required.

• Unless special precautions are adopted for evaluation of air from die-cavity some air is always
entrapped in castings causing porosity.

• It is not suitable for low production

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• Continuous casting is used to Continuous Casting • This method is widely used for
make a long casting of constant the production of steel ingots.
cross section using a water
cooled mold

• Also called strand casting

113
114
Equipment and process

• Molten metal is tapped into the ladle from furnaces.

• The molten metal in the ladle is cleaned

• Then it is equalized in temperature by blowing nitrogen gas through it for 5 to 10 minutes.

• The metal then is poured into a refractory-lined intermediate pouring vessel called tundish

• The impurities are skimmed off in tundish.

• The molten metal is then tapped from the tundish

• The molten metal travels downward through water-cooled copper molds, and begins to solidify

• The metal is drawn through the molds at a constant velocity by rollers (called pinch rolls).

115
• Before starting the casting process, a solid starter bar (dummy bar) is inserted into the bottom of the
mold.

• When the molten metal is first poured, it freezes on to the dummy bar.

• The bar is withdrawn at the same rate at which the metal is poured.

• The cooling rate is such that the metal develops a solidified skin (shell), so as to support itself during
its travel downward.

• Additional cooling is provided by water sprays along the travel path of the solidifying metal.

• The continuously cast metal may be cut into desired lengths by shearing or computer-controlled
torch cutting, or it may be fed directly into a rolling mill for further reduction in thickness and for
the shaping of products such as channels and I-beams

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• The molds generally are coated with graphite or similar solid lubricants in order to reduce both
friction and adhesion at the mold–metal interfaces.

• Also, the molds are vibrated in order to reduce friction and sticking.

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 Advantages

• The inefficiencies and the problems involved in making steels in the traditional form of ingots are
lessened by the continuous-casting process

• This method produces higher quality steels at reduced costs

• In addition to costing less, continuously cast metals have more uniform compositions and properties
than those obtained by ingot casting.

• The process is cheaper than rolling

• 100% casting yield.

• The process can be easily mechanized and thus unit labor cost is less.

• Grain size and structure of the casting can be easily controlled.

118
Applications

• It is used for casting materials such as brass, bronzes, zinc, copper, aluminium and its alloys,
magnesium, carbon and alloys etc.

• Production of blooms, billets, slabs, sheets, copper bar etc.

• It can produce any shape of uniform cross-section such as round, rectangular, square, hexagonal,
fluted or gear toothed etc.

119
 Squeeze Casting

• It is a casting technique that incorporate features of both casting and forging

• It is also called liquid-metal forging

• The process involves the solidification of molten metal under high pressure

• Typical products made are automotive components and mortar bodies (a short-barrelled cannon).

120
• The machinery includes a die, punch, and ejector pin.

• The pressure applied by the punch keeps the entrapped gases in solution

• The contact under high pressure at the die–metal interface promotes rapid heat transfer, thus
resulting in a fine microstructure with good mechanical properties.

• The application of pressure also overcomes feeding difficulties that may arise when casting metals
with a long freezing range

• The pressures required in squeeze casting are lower than those for hot or cold forging.

• Complex parts can be made to near-net shape with fine surface detail from both nonferrous and
ferrous alloys.

121
 Vacuum Induction Melting (VIM)

• This technology utilizes electric currents to melt metal within a vacuum.

• Basic principle behind this process is induction heating

• Induction heating induces eddy currents within conductors.

• Eddy currents create heating effects to melt the metal.

122
• A VIM furnace is simply a melting crucible inside a steel shell that is connected to a high speed
vacuum system

• The heart of the furnace is the crucible with heating and cooling coils and refractory lining.

• Heating is done by electric current that passes through a set of induction coils.

• The coils are made from copper tubing that is cooled by water flowing through the tubing.

• Immediately after ensuring that the furnace is vacuum-tight, the charge is placed into the VIM
furnace.

• The passage of current through the coils creates a magnetic field that induces a current in the charge
(metal or alloy) inside the refractory.

• When the heating of the charge material is sufficient that the charge has become all molten, these
magnetic fields cause stirring of the liquid charge. 123
• When the material has been completely melted (all molten), it outgasses

• Based on the analysis of this sample, trim additions are made to bring the melt into a very precise
compositional range

• A computer-controlled mass spectrometer system, specially developed for the VIM process, can
make a significant contribution to the optimization of the melting process and its economics.

• VIM is being increasingly used

• for the production of nonferrous metals and

• alloys.

124
 Advantages

• The process is relatively flexible, featuring the independent control of time, temperature, pressure, and mass
transport through melt stirring.

• VIM offers more control over alloy composition and homogeneity than other vacuum melting

• Processes flexibility due to small batch sizes

• Easy operation

• Low losses of alloying elements by oxidation

• Achievement of very close compositional tolerances

• Precise temperature control

• Low level of environmental pollution from dust output

• Removal of undesired trace elements with high vapor pressures

125
• Removal of dissolved gases, for example, hydrogen and nitrogen
Disadvantages

• problems can arise in the case of alloying elements with high vapor pressures, such as manganese.

• Vacuum melting also is more costly

• Minor reductions in carbon content may occur

Applications

• Vacuum induction melting has been used in both the aerospace and nuclear industries.

126
 Electro-slag Remelting (ESR)

• ESR is a process of remelting and refining steel and other alloys for mission-critical applications

• Eg:- aircraft, thermal power stations, nuclear power plants, military technology, etc.

• The material to be refined by ESR is first obtained in the form of an

electrode which is essentially an ingot.
• The electrode is suspended from an assembly which can vertically move
at a controlled rate.
• A reactive slag bath is contained in a water cooled copper crucible.
• First an arc is created between the electrode and the engineering slag
• Heat generated by the arc melts the slag and a molten slag is formed
• The tip of the electrode is kept dipped in the slag pool which is heated and
kept molten by passing a high ampere, low voltage current through the
same.
127
• The temperature of the slag bath is higher than the melting point of the electrode material.

• Hence, the electrode tip slowly melts

• These metal droplets travel through the slag to the bottom of the water-cooled mold

• The metal droplets deposit on the other side in the liquid metal pool which solidifies progressively.

• The direction of solidification is upwards from the bottom of the mold.

• Solidification takes place without any contact with the atmosphere.

• The liquid metal in the film and in the droplets is in contact with reactive slag and thus gets refined.

• Thus refined alloys are formed

• As the alloy solidifies, the slag pool floats above the refined alloy

• Due to this phenomenon, the slag pool continuously float upwards as the alloy solidifies.
128
 Advantages

• The prime attribute of the process which differentiates it from other hosts of secondary refining
processes is its capability to control both solidification structure and chemical homogeneity
simultaneously.

• During the ESR process, due to presence of an active slag which is essentially a mixture of CaF 2,

CaO and Al2O3, sulfur removal from the liquid metal takes place rapidly. There is usually no change
in chemical composition of the alloying elements but minor composition adjustments can be done
during ESR melting.

Disadvantages

• Removal of hydrogen is difficult during ESR melting.

129
 Vacuum Arc Remelting (VAR)

• Vacuum arc remelting (VAR) is a process used in industry to control casting of segregation-sensitive
and reactive metal alloy ingots.

• VAR produces metal ingots with elevated chemical and mechanical homogeneity for highly
demanding applications.

130
• In the VAR process, a cylindrically shaped alloy electrode is loaded into a water-cooled, copper
crucible of a VAR furnace.

• The furnace is evacuated, and a dc arc is struck between the electrode (cathode) and some start
material (e.g. metal chips) at the bottom of the crucible (anode).

• The arc heats both the start material and the electrode tip, eventually melting both.

• As the electrode tip is melted away, molten metal drips off and an ingot forms in the copper crucible.

• Because the crucible diameter is larger than the electrode diameter, the electrode must be translated
downward toward the anode pool to keep the mean distance (electrode gap) between the electrode
tip and pool surface constant.

• The objective of VAR is to produce an ingot free of macro segregation, porosity, shrinkage cavities
and other defects associated with uncontrolled solidification during casting.
131
Applications

• For the production of Nickel-base superalloys such as Alloy 718, commonly used for forged
rotating parts in the hot stages of jet aircraft engines and increasingly in land-based turbines for
power generation.

• Reactive metal alloys include titanium, zirconium and uranium alloys, such as Ti-6Al-4V, which is
used for a variety of aerospace applications are also produced using VAR.

• VAR also is used to produce various grades of forgeable stainless steel ingots.

132
Limitations

• Maintaining control of electrode gap is of primary importance in the VAR control problem.

• Large variations in electrode gap cause variations in the partitioning of arc power between the
molten ingot pool surface and the mold wall. It also causes the ingot sidewall quality to vary and
destabilizes the ingot-mold contact boundary.

• Effective melt rate control is a more challenging problem than gap control.

133