AMPLIFIER

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AMPLIFIER
• An amplifier is an electronic device that increases the power, voltage, or current of an
input signal.
• The main purpose of an amplifier is to take a weak signal and make it stronger, enabling
it to be used for various applications.
There are three main types of amplifiers:
 Voltage amplifier: Increases the voltage of the input signal
 Current amplifier: Increases the current of the input signal
 Power amplifier: Increases the power of the input signal, typically used to drive
loudspeakers or radio transmitters
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 CHARACTERISTICS
• Amplifiers key characteristics
 Linearity: The ability to amplify without distorting the shape of the input signal
 Gain: The ratio of output to input signal magnitude
 Bandwidth: The range of frequencies that can be effectively amplified

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 AMPLIFIER CLASSES
• There are several classes of amplifiers, each with its own characteristics
and applications:
• A,B,AB,C,D,E,G

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 CLASS A POWER AMPLIFIER
• Class A power amplifiers are the simplest type of power amplifier, using a
single transistor that conducts for the entire input cycle, resulting in a 360°
conduction angle

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KEY CHARACTERISTICS OF CLASS A AMPLIFIERS
INCLUDE:
Excellent linearity and minimal distortion, but low efficiency (around
25%)
The transistor is always in the ON state, even with no input signal,
generating significant heat
Used in applications requiring low power and low distortion, such as guitar
and radio amplifiers
Class A amplifiers offer excellent linearity and low distortion, but their low
efficiency makes them unsuitable for high-power applications
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 CLASS B AMPLIFIER
• Class B power amplifier is a type of amplifier circuit that uses two
transistors (either bipolar or FET) to amplify the positive and negative half-
cycles of the input signal separately

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KEY CHARACTERISTICS OF CLASS B
AMPLIFIERS INCLUDE:
Each transistor conducts for only 180° of the input cycle, resulting in a conduction
angle of 180°
Offers higher efficiency compared to Class A amplifiers by reducing power
dissipation Theoretical maximum efficiency of 78.5%, compared to 50% for Class A
Can experience crossover distortion at the transition between transistors
Class B amplifiers require a complementary pair of active devices (e.g., NPN and
PNP transistors) to handle the positive and negative half-cycles of the input signal.

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WORKING PRINCIPLE

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CROSSOVER DITORTION

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APPLICATIONS:
Class B amplifiers are commonly used in power amplifier applications, such as:
• Audio amplifiers (e.g., in hi-fi systems, public address systems)
• Radio frequency (RF) power amplifiers (e.g., in radio transmitters, cellular base
stations)
• Switch-mode power supplies
• Industrial and automotive applications requiring high-efficiency power
amplification

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CLASS AB AMPLIFIER
• Class AB amplifiers are a variation of the Class B amplifier that aims to
address the issue of crossover distortion inherent in Class B designs

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KEY CHARACTERISTICS OF CLASS AB
AMPLIFIERS:
• Biasing:
• In Class AB, the active devices (transistors or vacuum tubes) are biased with a small
amount of current, unlike the cut-off biasing in Class B.
• This small bias current allows the active devices to conduct for a larger portion of the
input signal cycle, reducing the crossover distortion.

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KEY CHARACTERISTICS OF CLASS AB
AMPLIFIERS:
1.Efficiency:
1. Class AB amplifiers have a slightly lower efficiency compared to Class B, typically around 50-70%.
2. However, the reduction in distortion often outweighs the efficiency loss, making Class AB a popular
choice for many applications.
2.Output Waveform:
1. The output waveform of a Class AB amplifier is a smoother, more continuous version of the Class B
output, with reduced crossover distortion.
3. Push-Pull Configuration:
Class AB amplifiers still typically use a complementary pair of active devices in a push-pull
configuration, similar to Class B.

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APPLICATIONS:
• Class AB amplifiers are widely used in various applications, such as:
• Audio power amplifiers (e.g., in hi-fi systems, musical instrument amplifiers)
• Radio frequency (RF) power amplifiers (e.g., in cellular base stations, radio
transmitters)
• Industrial and automotive power amplification systems

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CLASS C AMPLIFIER
• In a Class C amplifier, the transistor is biased such that it conducts for less
than half of the input signal cycle. This is achieved by applying a negative
bias voltage to the base of the transistor, which keeps the transistor cut off for
a portion of the input signal cycle.

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BIASING TRANSISTOR
• Negative Bias Voltage: In a Class C amplifier, a negative DC bias voltage is applied
to the base of the transistor. This negative bias voltage keeps the transistor in the
cutoff region for most of the input signal cycle.
• Conduction during Positive Peaks: When the positive half-cycle of the input signal
is applied, it overcomes the negative base bias, effectively forward-biasing the
transistor. This allows the transistor to conduct and amplify the positive portion of
the input waveform.
• Cutoff during Negative Cycles: During the negative half-cycle of the input signal,
the transistor is driven deeper into the reverse-biased or cutoff region, and it does
not conduct.
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BIASING TRANSISTOR
When an AC input signal is applied, the following happens:
1.Positive Half-Cycle:
1. The positive half-cycle of the AC input signal adds to the negative base bias voltage.
2. This causes the base-emitter junction to become forward-biased, allowing the transistor to conduct
and amplify the positive portion of the input signal.
2.Negative Half-Cycle:
1. The negative half-cycle of the AC input signal subtracts from the negative base bias voltage.
2. This drives the transistor deeper into cutoff, as the base-emitter junction becomes more reverse-
biased.
3. The transistor remains in cutoff and does not conduct during this portion of the input signal.

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THE OPERATION OF THE TUNED CIRCUIT IN A CLASS C
AMPLIFIER IS AS FOLLOWS:
• Conduction during Positive Cycle:
• When the transistor conducts during the positive half-cycle of the input signal, it allows current to flow
through the tuned LC circuit.
• The tuned circuit stores energy in the form of magnetic field (in the inductor) and electric field (in the
capacitor) during this period.

• Oscillation during Cutoff:

• During the negative half-cycle of the input signal, the transistor is cut off, and the energy stored in the tuned
circuit is released.
• The tuned circuit now oscillates at its resonant frequency, continuing to supply current to the load.

• Filtering and Waveform Shaping:

• The tuned circuit acts as a bandpass filter, filtering out the unwanted harmonics and shaping the output
waveform.
• The resonant frequency of the tuned circuit is designed to be the same as the input signal frequency, allowing
the fundamental frequency component to pass through while attenuating the higher harmonics.
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 CLASS C AMPLIFIER APPLIACATIONS
• RF Transmitters:
• Broadcast Transmitters: Used in AM, FM, and TV transmitters due to their high efficiency.
• Two-way Radios: Employed in walkie-talkies and other communication devices.
• Radar Systems: Utilized for transmitting high-power pulses.
• Oscillators:
• Signal Generation: Used in local oscillators for frequency mixing in superheterodyne receivers.
• RF Oscillators: Suitable for generating RF signals in various applications.
• Pulse Modulation Systems:
• Pulse Width Modulation (PWM): Used in systems where pulsed RF signals are needed.
• High-Frequency Signal Amplification:
• Microwave Communication: Employed in microwave and satellite communication due to the ability to operate efficiently at high frequencies.
• RF Power Amplifiers: Used in power amplifiers for transmitting high-frequency signals.
• Inductive Heating:
• Industrial Heating: Utilized in induction heating for melting, forging, and hardening metals.
• Telecommunication:
• Cellular
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Base Stations: Implemented in base station transmitters for cellular communication due to their efficiency.
CLASS D AMPLIFIER
• A class-D amplifier or switching amplifier is an electronic amplifier in which the amplifying devices
(transistors, usually MOSFETs) operate as electronic switches, and not as linear gain devices as in
other amplifiers.

• They operate by rapidly switching back and forth between the supply rails, using
pulse-width modulation, pulse-density modulation, or related techniques to produce a pulse train
output.

• Class D amplifier is a switching amplifier and when it is in the “ON” state it will conduct current but
have almost zero voltage across the switches, therefore no heat is dissipated due to power
consumption. When it is in the “OFF” mode the supply voltage will be going across the MOSFETs, but
due to no current flow, the switch is not consuming any power. The amplifier will only consume power
during the on/off transitions if leakage currents are not taken into account.

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CLASS D AMPLIFIER CONSISTING OF THE FOLLOWING STAGES:

• PMW modulator
• Switching circuit
• Output lowpass filter

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PMW MODULATOR
• The below figure shows how the comparator operates in a Class-D amplifier. One input ( let
it be Input A terminal) is supplied with the signal to be amplified. The other input (Input B)
is supplied with a precisely generated triangle wave. When the signal is instantaneously
higher in level than the triangle wave, the output goes positive. When the signal is
instantaneously lower in level than the triangle wave, the output goes negative. The result is
a chain of pulses where the pulse width is proportional to the instantaneous signal level. This
is known as ‘pulse width modulation’, or PWM.

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SWITCHING CIRCUIT
• The switching circuit is generally designed by using MOSFETs

• It is very crucial to design that the switching circuits produce signals that
do not overlap or else you run into the problem of shorting your supply
straight to ground or if using a split supply shorting the supplies.

• but it can be prevented by introducing non-overlapping gate signals to

the MOSFETs. The non-overlapping time is known as Dead time. In
designing these signals we must keep the dead time as short as possible
to maintain an accurate low-distortion output signal but must be long
enough to maintain both MOSFETs from conducting at the same time.

• A Schottky diode can be added in parallel to the drain and source of the
MOSFET to reduce the losses through the MOSFET.

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OUTPUT LOW PASS FILTER

• The final stage of a Class D amplifier is the output filter which attenuates and removes the
harmonics of the switching signal frequency.
• This can be done with a common low pass filter arrangement, but the most common is an
inductor and capacitor combination.

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APPLICATIONS OF CLASS D AMPLIFIER

• It is more suitable for portable devices because it does not contain any extra heat sink arrangement. So
easy to carry. High power class D amplifier has become standard in many consumer electronic
applications such as

• Audio amplification:
• Class D amplifiers are widely used in audio applications such as home theater systems, soundbars, Bluetooth
speakers, and car audio systems.
• Their high efficiency (typically 80-90%) allows for smaller, lighter, and more power-dense audio equipment.
• Class D amps excel at driving low-impedance speakers and subwoofers.

• Motor control:
• Class D amplifiers are used to drive motors in various applications like industrial equipment, home appliances,
power tools, and robotics.
• The PWM control allows for precise speed and torque control of the motors.
• Class D amps are preferred for their high efficiency, compact size, and ability to handle high currents.
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 • Power supplies:
• Class D switching power supplies are used in power adapters, battery chargers, and power conversion systems.
• The PWM technique allows for efficient conversion between different voltage levels.
• Class D power supplies are lightweight, compact, and generate less heat compared to linear power supplies.

• RF power amplification:
• Class D amplifiers can be used as RF power amplifiers in wireless communication systems, such as cellular base stations and
radar transmitters.
• The high efficiency of class D amps helps to reduce power consumption and heat dissipation in these applications.

• Servo control:
• Class D amplifiers are used to drive servo motors in applications like robotics, CNC machines, and automotive systems.
• The precise PWM control allows for accurate positioning and speed control of the servos.

Thanks
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CLASS E AMPLIFIER
• A Class E amplifier is a type of switching amplifier used primarily in RF (Radio Frequency)
applications due to its high efficiency.
• A Class-E amplifier is a type of high-efficiency power amplifier that operates in a switched
mode, utilizing a transistor as a switch to bypass the conduction angle

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OPERATION OF CLASS E AMPLIFIERS:
• Transistor Switching:
• The transistor in a Class E amplifier switches on and off at a high frequency, controlled by an
input signal. When the transistor is on, it conducts current with minimal voltage drop. When off, it
blocks current flow with minimal leakage.

• Resonant Network:
• The resonant network, typically consisting of an inductor and a capacitor, shapes the voltage and
current waveforms. This network ensures that the voltage across the transistor is zero when it
turns on, and the current through the transistor is zero when it turns off.

• Load Network: The load network matches the impedance of the amplifier to the load, ensuring
maximum power transfer and efficient operation.

• Harmonic Filtering: The output network also serves to filter out harmonics, ensuring that the output
signal is predominantly the desired frequency.

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CHARACTERISTICS OF CLASS E AMPLIFIERS:
• High Efficiency:
• Class E amplifiers are designed to achieve high efficiency, typically over 90%. This is accomplished by minimizing
the overlap between voltage and current waveforms in the switching transistor, reducing power loss.

• Switching Operation:
• These amplifiers operate by switching the transistor between the on and off states. This switching is controlled such
that the transistor operates as a switch, either fully on (saturated) or fully off (cut-off).

• Waveform Shaping:
• The output network of a Class E amplifier shapes the voltage and current waveforms. This network usually includes
inductors and capacitors configured to create resonant circuits that help achieve zero-voltage switching (ZVS) and
zero-current switching (ZCS).

• Zero-Voltage Switching (ZVS):

• In ZVS, the transistor switches on when the voltage across it is zero, minimizing the power dissipated during
switching.

• Zero-Current Switching (ZCS):

• InBY:-ZCS,
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APPLICATIONS OF CLASS E AMPLIFIERS:

• RF Transmitters:
• Due to their high efficiency at high frequencies, Class E amplifiers are commonly used in RF
transmitters for communication systems.

• Wireless Power Transfer:

• These amplifiers are used in wireless power transfer systems, where efficiency and high-frequency
operation are critical.

• Inductive Heating:
• Class E amplifiers are also employed in inductive heating applications, where they can efficiently
generate the high-frequency currents needed for heating.

• Switch-Mode Power Supplies:

• They can be used in switch-mode power supplies (SMPS) for their high efficiency and ability to operate
at high frequencies.

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Class F Amplifier
• A Class-F amplifier is a type of high-efficiency power amplifier that uses harmonic resonators in the
output network to shape the output waveform and improve efficiency

• The key idea is to shape the output voltage and current waveforms to be as non-overlapping as
possible, reducing the amount of power dissipated in the output transistor

• uses the multiple harmonics resonator output filter to control the harmonic content of it drain-to source
voltage and drain current waveforms

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The working principle of a class F amplifier can be explained as follows:
• Input Signal:
• The input signal, typically a sinusoidal waveform, is applied to the input of the amplifier.
• Output Stage Biasing:
• The output stage of the class F amplifier is biased in a switching mode, meaning the transistor(s) operate as switches, alternating between
fully on and fully off states.

• Tuned Output Network:

• The key to the class F design is the tuned output network, which consists of a combination of inductors, capacitors, and transmission
lines.
• This network is designed to resonate at the fundamental frequency of the input signal, as well as at the odd harmonics (3rd, 5th, 7th, etc.).
• Waveform Shaping:
• The resonant output network shapes the output voltage waveform to be more square-like, with flatter tops and steeper edges.
• This is achieved by the network's ability to selectively filter and pass the fundamental and odd harmonic frequencies.
• The shaped output voltage waveform is then applied to the load (e.g., an antenna or speaker).
• Efficiency Improvement:
• By shaping the output voltage waveform, the time when both voltage and current are high in the output transistor is minimized.
• This reduces the overlap between voltage and current, resulting in lower power dissipation in the transistor.
• The reduced power dissipation leads to a higher overall efficiency, typically in the range of 70% to over 90%.
• Harmonic Resonances:
• The
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IMRAN MUBASHIR resonances (5th, 7th, etc.) can further improve the efficiency by refining the output waveform shape.
• These higher harmonics help to create a more square-like waveform, further reducing the voltage-current overlap.
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THE KEY FEATURES OF A CLASS-F AMPLIFIER ARE

• The output network is designed to present an open circuit at odd harmonics and a
short circuit at even harmonics.
• This harmonic control shapes the drain voltage waveform to minimize overlap with
the drain current, reducing power dissipation and increasing efficiency.
• Theoretically, Class-F amplifiers can achieve 100% efficiency, but in practice,
efficiencies around 80%.
• The design involves matching network design at the fundamental frequency and load
harmonic tuning network design up to certain order harmonics

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 The class F amplifier specifically uses odd harmonic resonances in the output network to shape the output waveform
for improved efficiency. There are a few key reasons for this:

• Symmetry of the Waveform:

• The ideal output waveform for a class F amplifier is a square wave.
• A square wave is an odd-symmetric waveform, meaning it is symmetrical about the vertical axis.
• Odd harmonic resonances help create this odd-symmetric waveform shape.
• Minimizing Voltage-Current Overlap:
• To maximize efficiency, the goal is to minimize the overlap between the voltage and current waveforms in the output
transistor.
• Odd harmonic resonances help shape the voltage waveform to have flatter tops and steeper edges, reducing the time
when both voltage and current are high.

• Harmonic Power Distribution:

• In a typical amplifier, the power is concentrated at the fundamental frequency.
• By using odd harmonic resonances, the power is distributed across the fundamental and odd harmonics.
• This helps reduce the peak voltage and current stresses on the output transistor.
• Simpler Implementation:
• Implementing resonances at only the odd harmonics (3rd, 5th, 7th, etc.) is generally simpler than trying to resonant at
both odd and even harmonics.
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• The odd harmonic approach provides a good balance of waveform shaping and practical circuit design.
Applications of Class F Amplifiers:
• RF Transmitters:
• Class F amplifiers are widely used in RF transmitters for communication systems,
particularly where efficiency and linearity are critical.
• Broadcasting:
• These amplifiers are suitable for broadcasting applications, where large amounts of power
need to be efficiently transmitted over the air.
• Radar Systems:
• High-power radar systems also utilize Class F amplifiers to achieve high efficiency, which is
essential for long-range detection capabilities.
• Wireless Communication:
• Class F amplifiers find applications in various wireless communication systems, including
cellular networks and satellite communications.
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