CHEMISTRY(9701)

AS AND A LEVELS
(2024-26)
COURSEBOOK
CONTENT OVERVIEW (AS LEVEL)
CONTENT OVERVIEW (A LEVEL)
Candidates for Cambridge International A Level Chemistry study the AS
topics and the following topics:
ASSESSMENT OVERVIEW (AS LEVEL)
ASSESSMENT OVERVIEW (A LEVEL)
LEARNING STRATEGIES

incorporate visuals in Highlight

your reading

Write a summary of the complete the Practice

section Problem Exercises
READING
CHEMISTRY

Plan when and where

Make flashcards
you read.
LEARNING STRATEGIES
Tables and diagrams
to be completely and
Use technical writing WRITING accurately labelled
CHEMISTRY
Use lower case for
chemical names

Use scientific notation

For instance, you may be asked: “What evidence did you observe that indicates a
reaction occurred?”
A good technical response would be:
A yellow precipitate formed in the container.
The wordy response below would be inappropriate:
After we observed the reaction for a few minutes, we saw something yellow starting to
form at the bottom of the glass. We think that is how we know that a reaction occurred.
 ATOMIC
STRUCTURE
CHAPTER -01
Pre-requisite

Deduce the formula of a simple ion (e.g. a chloride ion or an

aluminium ion) by reference to the Periodic Table
The Periodic Table
 1.1 Particles in the atom and the atomic radius

Learning outcomes

Candidates should be able to:

1 understand that atoms are mostly empty space surrounding a very small, dense nucleus that contains
protons and neutrons; electrons are found in shells in the empty space around the nucleus
 Element Atom

Element: a substance containing only one type of atom. All the atoms in an element have the same proton number.

Atom: the smallest part of an element that can take part in a chemical change.
Through various experiments it was established that an atom consists of subatomic particles
such as protons, electrons and neutrons.

Every atom contains protons in its nucleus and electrons outside the nucleus. Most atoms have neutrons in the nucleus. The
exception is the isotope of hydrogen 11H.
Now let us look at the arrangement of these subatomic particles in an atom different models
were proposed to explain the distribution of subatomic particles in an atom.

Of all these models, the models proposed by J.J. Thompson and Ernest Rutherford out of
great significance as they paved the way for modern structure of an atom.
Thompson's Atomic Model
J.J. Thompson in 1898 proposed the atomic model called
Thompson's atomic model soon after the discovery of Electrons.

According to this model an atom is a sphere of radius 10-10 m with

uniform distribution of mass and positive charge with negatively
charged particles called electrons embedded in it.

In this model the negatively charged particles that are embedded in

evenly spread positive charge can be visualized as plums or raisins
or seams that are embedded in the pudding or watermelon therefore
this model is also called plum pudding/raisin pudding or
watermelon model.
This model successfully explained the overall neutrality of the atom.
DRAWBACKS

 It could not explain the results of the scattering

experiment conducted by Ernest Rutherford.

 Also it couldn't explain the stability of an atom that is

how the positively charged particles are shielded from
the negatively charged particles without getting
neutralized.
In order to validate Thompson's atomic model in 1911 Rutherford and his students Hans
Geiger and Ernest Marsden conducted an experiment called the Gold foil experiment or
Alpha particle scattering experiment.
Before we proceed to alpha particle scattering experiment, let us acquaint ourselves with the
term alpha particle, its source, other particles emitted from the same source and the few
characteristics.
We know that certain elements emit radiation on their own and this phenomenon is called
radioactivity and the elements are radioactive elements.

The Alpha rays are emitted by these radioactive elements along with beta and gamma rays.
 ALPHA RAYS BETA RAYS GAMMA RAYS

Alpha rays consist of high-energy The beta rays are negatively charged The gamma rays are high energy
particles carrying two units of positive particles similar to electrons. radiations like x-rays. Unlike alpha and
charge and four units of atomic mass beta rays gamma rays do not contain
hence these particles are di positive particles and are neutral in nature.
helium nuclei.
The alpha particles have the least penetrating power among the three.
The penetrating power of beta particles is nearly 100 times and the penetrating power of
gamma rays is 1,000 times more than that of the alpha particles.
Alpha particle scattering experiment

In this experiment a stream of high-energy

alpha particles from a radioactive source
was bombarded on a very thin gold foil.

The thin gold foil had a circular

fluorescent zinc sulphide screen around
it.

Whenever alpha particles struck the zinc sulphide screen a tiny flash of light was produced
at that point.
If Thompson's model is correct then all the alpha particles should pass through the gold foil
almost undeflected. This is because the entire mass and positive charge is uniformly spread
throughout an atom.

However the observations are quite contrary to these expectations.

OBSERVATIONS
The following were the unexpected observations
made in this experiment:

 Most of the alpha particles passed through the

gold foil undeflected.
 A small fraction of the alpha particles were
deflected by small angles.
 A few alpha particles were deflected by large
angles
 A very little amount of alpha particles, one in
20,000 were bounced back to the source i.e.
nearly by 180 degrees.
INTERPRETATION
Based on these observations, Rutherford concluded:

 As most of the alpha particles passed undeflected, most of the

space inside the atom is empty.
 Only a small number of deflected particles suggested that the
positive charge of the atom is not spread throughout the atom
as Thompson had presumed rather it is concentrated at the
center in a very small volume.
 The alpha particles that are deflected by larger angles and by
180 degrees indicated that the atom has a dense positive
charge with entire mass concentrated at the center. As the
alpha particles approach much nearer to the massive
positively charged center they get deflected by larger angles
and as they directly hit the massive positively charged center
they get deflected nearly by 180 degrees. It is due to the
increase in enormous repulsive forces from the massive
positively charged center.
Rutherford named the positively-charged center present in an atom as nucleus.

Calculation by Rutherford showed that

the volume of the nucleus is negligible
as compared to the total volume of the
atom.
For an atom of radius 10-10 meter, the radius of
the nucleus is about 10-15 meter.
That means if a cricket ball represents
a nucleus, the radius of the atom would
be about five kilometres.
Based on the observations and conclusions of the gold foil experiment,
Rutherford proposed a new atomic model called Rutherford's nuclear
model of atom immediately after the discovery of protons.

According to the Rutherford’s nuclear model of atom, atom consists of a

tiny dense positively charged center called Nucleus.

Entire positive charge and most of the atomic mass of an atom is

concentrated in the nucleus.
Electrons are found outside the nucleus. They revolve around the nucleus
with high velocities and circular parts so as to counterbalance the
electrostatic forces of attraction between the protons and electrons.
Electrostatic forces of attraction hold the electrons and the nucleus together in an atom. As
electrons move in circular paths around the nucleus just like planets revolve around the Sun
in the solar system, Rutherford's atomic model is also called Planetary model.
Rutherford's model could account for the presence of nucleus and electrons outside the
nucleus. However it failed to explain the stability of the atom.
According to the Maxwell's theory of
electromagnetic radiation, a charged particle
in circular motion, emits energy continuously.

Hence an electron revolving round nucleus

also loses energy.

As a consequence of this, the electron

follows the spiral path towards the
nucleus and this ultimately results in
collapse of an atom
The improvised outcome of the Rutherford’s atomic model is the Bohr's atomic model.

Bohr's theory could successfully explain the stability of an atom as well as the discontinuous
spectra for hydrogen atom to understand the Bohr's atomic model.
 Atom

Neutron Proton Electron

Nucleus
Nucleon Number = Number of protons + Number of neutrons
 1.1 Particles in the atom and the atomic radius

2 identify and describe protons, neutrons and electrons in terms of their relative charges and relative masses
3 understand the terms atomic and proton number; mass and nucleon number
4 describe the distribution of mass and charge within an atom
 THE STRUCTURE OF ATOMS

Atoms consist of a number of fundamental particles,

the most important are ...

Relative Relative
Mass / kg Charge / C
mass charge

PROTON

NEUTRON

ELECTRON
 THE STRUCTURE OF ATOMS

Atoms consist of a number of fundamental particles,

the most important are ...

Relative Relative
Mass / kg Charge / C
mass charge

PROTON 1.672 x 10-27 1.602 x 10-19 1 +1

NEUTRON 1.675 x 10-27 0 1 0
1
ELECTRON 9.109 x 10-31 1.602 x 10-19 1836 -1
 MASS NUMBER AND ATOMIC NUMBER

Atomic Number (Z) Number of protons in the nucleus of an atom

Mass Number (A) Sum of the protons and neutrons in the nucleus
 MASS NUMBER AND ATOMIC NUMBER

Atomic Number (Z) Number of protons in the nucleus of an atom

Mass Number (A) Sum of the protons and neutrons in the nucleus

Mass Number (A)

PROTONS + NEUTRONS

23
Na
11
Atomic Number (Z)
PROTONS
 MASS NUMBER AND ATOMIC NUMBER

Atomic Number (Z) Number of protons in the nucleus of an atom

Mass Number (A) Sum of the protons and neutrons in the nucleus

Mass Number (A)

PROTONS + NEUTRONS

23
Na
11
THESE ALWAYS GO
Atomic Number (Z) TOGETHER – ANYTHING
PROTONS WITH 11 PROTONS MUST
BE SODIUM
 MASS NUMBER AND ATOMIC NUMBER

Atomic Number (Z) Number of protons in the nucleus of an atom

Mass Number (A) Sum of the protons and neutrons in the nucleus

Mass Number (A)

PROTONS + NEUTRONS

23
Na
11
Atomic Number (Z)
PROTONS
 MASS NUMBER AND ATOMIC NUMBER

Atomic Number (Z) Number of protons in the nucleus of an atom

Mass Number (A) Sum of the protons and neutrons in the nucleus

Mass Number (A) THERE WILL BE 12 NEUTRONS

PROTONS + NEUTRONS IN THE NUCLEUS

23 – 11 = 12
23
Na
11
Atomic Number (Z)
PROTONS
 MASS NUMBER AND ATOMIC NUMBER

Atomic Number (Z) Number of protons in the nucleus of an atom

Mass Number (A) Sum of the protons and neutrons in the nucleus

Mass Number (A)

PROTONS + NEUTRONS

23
Na
11
Atomic Number (Z)
PROTONS
 1.1 Particles in the atom and the atomic radius

5 describe the behaviour of beams of protons, neutrons and electrons moving at the same velocity in
an electric field
 What happens if a beam of each of these particles is passed
between two electrically charged plates - one positive and one
negative?
If the particles have the same speeds

If beams of the three sorts of particles, all with the same speed, are passed between
two electrically charged plates:

•Protons are deflected on a curved path towards the negative plate.

•Electrons are deflected on a curved path towards the positive plate.
•If the electrons and protons are travelling with the same speed, then the lighter
electrons are deflected far more strongly than the heavier protons.
•Neutrons continue in a straight line.
1.1 Particles in the atom and the atomic radius

6 determine the numbers of protons, neutrons and electrons present in both atoms and ions given
atomic or proton number, mass or nucleon number and charge
 MASS NUMBER AND ATOMIC NUMBER

Atomic Mass
Protons Neutrons Electrons Charge Symbol
Number Number

A 19 21 19

B 20 0 40

C + 11 23

D 6 6 0

E 92 0 235

F 6 13

G 16 2- 16

H 27
Al3+
 MASS NUMBER AND ATOMIC NUMBER

Atomic Mass
Protons Neutrons Electrons Charge Symbol
Number Number

A 19 21 19 0 19 40 40
K

B 20 20 20 0 20 40 40
Ca

C 11 12 10 + 11 23 23
Na+

D 6 6 6 0 6 12 12
C

E 92 143 92 0 92 235 235

U

F 6 7 6 0 6 13 13
C

G 16 16 18 2- 16 32 32
S2-

H 13 14 10 3+ 13 27 27
Al3+
 1.2 Isotopes

Learning outcomes

Candidates should be able to:

1 define the term isotope in terms of numbers of protons and neutrons

2 understand the notation xyA for isotopes, where x is the mass or nucleon number and y is the atomic or
proton number
3 state that and explain why isotopes of the same element have the same chemical properties
4 state that and explain why isotopes of the same element have different physical properties, limited to mass
and density
ISOTOPES
Atoms of the same element may have the same number of protons that is the atomic number
but may have different numbers of neutrons. In other words the atoms have the same atomic
number but different mass numbers, such atoms are called isotopes.
Isotopes of the same element occupy the same place in the
periodic table because they have the same atomic number.
EXAMPLES OF ISOTOPES
The chemical properties of an element depend on the number of electrons present and their
configuration within an atom and not on the number of neutrons. Hence as the isotopes have
the same number of electrons they exhibit similar chemical properties. However as the mass
of isotopes differ due to the different numbers of neutrons present in an atom their physical
properties differ from each other
 LET’S BRAINSTORM

1. A beam of electrons is passing close to a highly negatively charged plate. When the
electrons pass close to the plate, they are deflected away from the plate.

a. What deflection would you expect, if any, when the experiment is repeated with
beams of
i protons and
ii neutrons?
Explain your answers.

b. Which subatomic particle (electron, proton or neutron) would deviate the most?
Explain your answer.
 LET’S BRAINSTORM
2. Use the information in Table to deduce the number of electrons and
neutrons in a neutral atom of:

a. vanadium
b. strontium
c. phosphorus
 LET’S BRAINSTORM

3. Use the Periodic Table to help you.

Write isotopic symbols for the following neutral atoms:

a. bromine-81
b. calcium-44
c. iron-58
d. palladium-110
LET’S BRAINSTORM
LET’S BRAINSTORM
Copy and complete these sentences using words from this list. Some words
may be used more than once.

An atom contains a dense nucleus surrounded by ____________ of electrons. The

nucleus contains the nucleons (____________ and ____________). Protons are
____________ charged, electrons have a ____________ charge and ____________
are uncharged. The ____________ and neutrons have the same ____________
mass. The mass of an ____________ is negligible (hardly anything).
Match the boxes 1 to 4 on the left with the descriptions A to D on the right.
Deduce the number of protons and electrons or neutrons represented by the letters A to F.
 Here is a ‘cell’ of the Periodic Table:

i. Explain why the relative atomic mass is not a whole number.

ii. An isotope of strontium has a nucleon number of 90. How many neutrons are there in
this isotope?

iii. Explain in terms of the charge on the subatomic particles why the strontium ion has a
2+ charge.
How many protons, neutrons and electrons do the following species have?
a. Alpha-particles are helium nuclei. Helium atoms have 2 protons and 2 neutrons. Write
the isotopic symbol for a helium nucleus.

b. Suggest, in terms of the structure of the atoms, why most α-particles passed straight
through the foil.

c. Explain why some α-particles were deflected slightly.

d. Suggest, in terms of the structure of the atoms, why so few α-particles were deflected
backwards.

e. Suggest what would happen in this experiment if a beam of neutrons were fired at the
gold foil. Explain your answer.

f. Explain why two different isotopes of helium have different densities.

LEARNING CHECK
Thank You