CHAPTER THREE

UNIFORM FLOW & ITS

COMPUTATION
 Table of Contents
3.1 Concept and establishment of uniform flow
3.2. Chezy equation
3.3. Manning’s formula
3.4. Manning’s roughness coefficient
3.4.1. Composite roughness of channels
3.5. Uniform flow computation
3.6. The hydraulic efficient channel section
3.7. Channel with compound sections
3.8. Design of irrigation channels
 3.1. Concept and Establishment of Uniform flow
• A flow is said to be uniform if its properties remain constant with respect to
distance.
• The term open channel flow in open channel is to mean steady uniform flow.
• Since Q=AV, it follows that in uniform flow V 1=V2=V.
• Thus in uniform flow, depth of flow, area of cross section and velocity of flow
remain constant along the channel.
• Uniform flow is possible only in prismatic (artificial) channels.
• When flow occurs in an open channel, resistance is encountered by the water as it
flows downstream.
• A uniform flow will be developed if the resistance is balanced by the gravity forces.
• If the water enters into a channel slowly, the velocity and the resistance are small, and
the resistance is out balanced by the gravity forces, resulting in an accelerating flow in
the upstream reach.
• The velocity and the resistance will gradually increase until a balance between resistance
and gravity forces is reached.
• At this moment and afterward the flow becomes uniform.
• The upstream reach that is required for the establishment of uniform flow is known as
the transitory zone.
• The actual depth of flow is the depth of channel measured normal to the direction of
flow.
• Normal depth is the particular depth for which the channel has uniform flow for a given
slope and discharge.
• The water surface profile is a measure of how the flow depth changes longitudinally.
• The profiles are classified based on the relationship between the actual water depth (y),
the normal depth (yn) and the critical depth (yc).
• Normal depth is the depth of flow in a channel or culvert when the slope of the water
surface and channel bottom is the same and the water depth remains constant.
• Normal depth occurs when gravitational force of the water is equal to the friction drag
along the culvert and there is no acceleration of flow.
Concept of Uniform Flow
• Uniform flow is referring the steady uniform flow
• Steady flow is characterized by no changes in time.
• Uniform flow is characterized by the water cross section and depth remaining
constant over a certain reach of the channel.
• For any channel of given roughness, cross section and slope, there exists one and
only one water depth, called the normal depth, at which the flow will be uniform.
• Uniform equilibrium flow can occur only in a straight channel with a constant
channel slope and cross-sectional shape, and a constant discharge.
• The energy grade line Sf, water surface slope Sw and channel bed slope So are all
parallel, i.e., Sf=Sw=So
• For steady uniform channel flow, channel slope, depth and velocity all remain
constant along the channel.
 3.2. CHEZY EQUATION
• For hydraulic computation the mean velocity of a turbulent uniform flow in open channels
is usually expressed approximately by a so-called uniform flow formula.
• Most practical uniform flow formula can be expressed in the following general form:

•Where V is the mean velocity, R is the hydraulic gradient, S is the energy slope, x and y are
exponents and C is a factor of flow resistance.
•By definition there is no acceleration in uniform flow. By applying the momentum equation
to a control volume, distance L apart.

•Where F1 and F2 are pressure forces and

•M1 and M2 are the momentum fluxes at section 1 and 2 respectively
• W weight of the fluid in the control volume and
•F is the shear force at the boundary.
• Since the flow is uniform: F1= F2 and M1=M2
• Also W = γAL and F3= τoPL where τo average shear stress on the wetted perimeter of
length P and γ is unit weight of water.
• Replacing sinθ by So (bottom slope) can be written as:

• Expressing the average shear stress τo as τo = kρV2, where k is a coefficient which depends
on the nature of the surface and flow parameters.
 3.3. MANNING’S FORMULA
• A resistance formula proposed by Robert Manning, owing to its simplicity
and acceptable degree of accuracy in a variety of practical applications.
• Manning’s formula is probably the most widely used uniform flow formula in
the world.
 3.4. Manning’s Roughness Coefficient
• In the Manning’s formula, all the terms except n are capable of direct
measurement.
• The roughness coefficient, being a parameter representing the integrated
effect of the channel cross sectional resistance, is to be estimated.
• The selection of a value for n is subjective, based on one’s experience and
engineering judgment.
• However, a few aids are available which reduce to a certain extent the
subjectiveness in the selection of an appropriate value of n for a given
channel.
• These includes:
• A compressive list of various types of channels,
• There descriptions with the associated range of values of n and photographs of
selected typical reaches of canals,
• There description and measured value of n.
 Factors affecting n
• It is not common for engineers to think of a channel as having a single value of
n for all occasions.
• In reality, the value of n is highly variable and depends on a number of factors.
• The manning’s n is essentially a coefficient representing the integrated effect of
a large number of factors contributing to the energy loss in a reach.
• Some important factors are: a) surface roughness b) vegetation c) channel
irregularity and d) Channel alignment.
• The chief among these are the characteristics of the surface.
• Surface roughness: represented by the size and shape of the grains of the
material forming the weighted perimeter and producing a retarding effect on
the flow.
• Fine grains result in relatively low value of n and coarse grains, in a high value
of n.
• Vegetation: also markedly reduce the capacity of the channel and retard the flow.
• Channel irregularity: comprises irregularity in wetted perimeter and variation in
cross-section and shape along the channel length.
• Channel alignment: smooth curves with larger radius will give a relatively low value
of n, whereas sharp curvatures with severe meandering will increase n.
• Cowan has developed a procedure to estimate the value of roughness factor n of
natural channels in a systematic way by giving weightages to various important
factors that affect the roughness coefficient.
• According to Cowan, n = (nb + n1 + n2 +n3 +n4) m
• Where nb = a base value of n for a straight uniform smooth channel in natural
material
• n1 = correction for surface irregularities
• n2 = correction for variation in shape and size of the cross section
• n3 = correction for obstructions
• n4 = correction for vegetation and flow condition
• m = correction for meandering of the channel
 3.4.1. Composite Roughness of Channels
• In some channels, different part of the channel perimeter may have different roughness.
• Canals in which only the sides are lined, laboratory flumes with glass walls and rough
beds, rivers with a sand bed in deep water portion and flood plains covered with
vegetation, are some typical examples.
• For such channels it is necessary to determine an equivalent roughness, a coefficient
that can be applied to the entire cross-sectional perimeter in using the Manning’s
formula.
• This equivalent roughness, also called the composite roughness, represents a weighted
average value for the roughness coefficient.
• One such method of calculations of equivalent roughness is given below.
• Consider a channel having its perimeter composed of N types of roughness P1, P2, P3 …
PN are the lengths of these N parts and n1, n2… nN are the respective roughness
coefficients.
• Let each part Pi be associated with a partial area Ai such that:
V1=V2=V3=--------Vi=Vn=V
 3.5. UNIFORM FLOW COMPUTATION
• The basic equations involved in the computation of uniform flow are the manning’s and the
continuity equation.
• From continuity equation Q = AV, if we substitute the velocity from the
manning’s formula we get the equation for discharge as:

Uniform flow computation problems are relatively simple. The available relations
are:
1. Manning’s formula
2. Continuity equation
3. Geometry of the cross section
• The basic variables in uniform flow problems can be the:
• Discharge Q, Velocity of flow V, Normal depth yo, Roughness coefficient n,
Channel slope S0 and the geometric elements (e.g. B and side slope m for a
trapezoidal channel).
• There can be many other derived variables accompanied by corresponding relationships.
• From among the above, the following five types of basic problems are recognized.

Problems of the types 1, 2 and 3 normally have explicit solutions and hence do not present any
difficulty in their calculations.
Problems of the types 4 and 5 usually do not have explicit solutions and as such may involve trial-
and-error solutions procedures.
 • Variation of Hydraulic Radius with depth and Width
• Hydraulic radius plays a prominent role in the equations of open-channel flow.
• The variation of hydraulic radius with depth and width of the channel becomes an
important consideration.
• This is mainly a problem of section geometry with depth and width.
Consider fig b.
 3.7. The Hydraulic Efficient Channel Section
The best hydraulic (the most efficient) cross-section for a given Q, n, and So
is the one with a minimum excavation and minimum lining cross-section.
A = Amin and P = Pmin.
The minimum cross-sectional area and the minimum lining area will reduce
construction expenses and therefore that cross-section is economically the
most efficient one.
In other case the best hydraulic cross-section for a given A, n, and S0 is the
cross-section that conveys maximum discharge.
Thus the cross-section with the minimum wetted perimeter is the best
hydraulic cross-section within the cross-sections with the same area since
lining and maintenance expenses will reduce substantially.
B
b). For a given water depth y, what will be the side slope m for best hydraulic trapezoidal
cross section?
 Half a Circular Conduit
• Wetted area A, and wetted perimeter of the half a circular conduit,

Half a circular conduit

itself is a best hydraulic
cross-section.
 3.7. Channel with Compound Sections
• Some channel sections may be formed as a combination of elementary sections.
• It is a channel section composed of a main deep portion and one or two flood
plains that carry high-water flows.
• The main channel carries the dry weather flow and during wet season,
• the flow may spillover the banks of the main channel to the adjacent flood plains.
• A majority of natural rivers have compound sections.
• A compound section is also known as two-stage channel.
• The hydraulic conditions of the main channel and the flood plain differ
considerably, especially in the channel geometry and in its roughness.
• The flood plains generally have considerably larger and varied roughness
elements.
• Fig. below represents a simplified section of a stream with flood banks.
 Consider the compound section to be divided into subsections by arbitrary lines.
 These can be extensions of the deep channel boundaries as in Fig. below.
 Assuming the longitudinal slope to be same for all subsections,
 but the subsections will have different mean velocities depending upon the depth
and roughness of the boundaries.
 If the mean velocities Vi in the various subsections are known then the total
discharge is ΣViAi.
Fig. Compound section
• If the depth of flow is confined to the deep channel only (y < h),
• calculation of discharge by using Manning’s equation is very simple.
• However, when the flow spills over the flood plain which means (y >
h),
• the problem of discharge calculation is complicated as the
calculation may give a smaller hydraulic radius for the whole stream
section and hence the discharge may be underestimated.
• The following method of discharge estimation can be used.
• In this method, while calculating the wetted perimeter for the sub-
areas,
• the imaginary divisions (FJ and CK in the Figure) are considered as
boundaries for the deeper portion only and neglected completely in
the calculation relating to the shallower portion.
 3.8. Design of Irrigation Channels
• For a uniform flow in a canal,

• If the canal is of trapezoidal cross-section,

• The equation above has six variables out of which one is a dependent variable
and the rest five are independent ones.
• Similarly, for other channel shapes, the number of variables depends upon the
channel geometry.
• In a channel design problem, the independent variables are known either
explicitly or implicitly, or as inequalities, mostly in terms of empirical
relationships.
• The canal-design practice given below is meant only for rigid-boundary
channels, i.e. for lined and unlined non-erodible channels.
 1. Canal Section
•Normally a trapezoidal section is adopted.
•Rectangular cross-sections are also used in special situations, such as in rock cuts; steep chutes and in
cross-drainage works.
•The side slope, expressed as m horizontal: 1 vertical, depends on the type of canal, (i.e. lined or unlined,
nature and type of soil through which the canal is laid).
•The slopes are designed to withstand seepage forces under critical conditions, such as;
 A canal running full with banks saturated due to rainfall,
 The sudden drawdown of canal supply.
•Usually, the slopes are steeper in cutting than in filling.
•For lined canals, the slopes roughly correspond to the angle of repose of the natural soil and the values of m
range from 1.0 to 1.5 and rarely up to 2.0.
•The slopes recommended for unlined canals in cutting are given in Table below.
Table. Side slopes for unlined canals in cutting

2. Longitudinal or bed Slope

• The longitudinal slope is fixed on the basis of topography to command
as much area as possible with the limiting velocities acting as
constraints.
• Usually, the slopes are of the order of 0.0001.
• For lined canals a velocity of about 2 m/sec is usually recommended.
3. Roughness coefficient n
•Procedures for selecting n are discussed and values of n can be taken from Table of
manning’s roughness.
4. Permissible Velocities
•Since the cost for a given length of canal depends upon its size, if the available slope
permits, it is economical to use highest safe velocities.
•High velocities may cause scour and erosion of the boundaries.
•As such, in unlined channels the maximum permissible velocities refer to the velocities
that can be safely allowed in the channel without causing scour or erosion of the
channel material.
•In lined canals, where the material of lining can withstand very high velocities, the
maximum permissible velocity is determined by:
• the stability and durability of the lining and
• the erosive action of any abrasive material that may be carried in the stream.
•The permissible maximum velocities normally adopted for a few soil types and lining
materials are given in Table below.
Table. Permissible Maximum velocities

• In addition to the maximum velocities, a

minimum velocity in the channel is also
an important constraint in the canal
design.
• Too low velocity would cause deposition
of suspended material, like silt, which
cannot only impair the carrying
capacity but also increase the
maintenance costs.
• Also, in unlined canals, too low a
velocity may encourage weed growth.
• The minimum velocity in irrigation
channels is of the order of 0.30 m/sec.
5. Free Board
•Free board for lined canals is the vertical distance between the full supply levels to the top
of lining (Fig. below).
• For unlined canals, it is the vertical distance from the full supply level to the top of the
bank.

•This distance should be sufficient to prevent overtopping of the canal lining or banks due to
waves.
•The amount of free board provided depends on the canal size, location, velocity and depth
of flow.
6. Width to Depth Ratio:
• The relationship between width and depth varies widely depending upon the design
practice.
• If the hydraulically most-efficient channel cross-section is adopted,

• If any other value of m is use, the corresponding value of B/y0 for the efficient
section would be:

• In large channels it is necessary to limit the depth to avoid dangers of bank failure.
• Usually, depths higher than about 4.0 m are applied only when it is absolutely
necessary.
• For selection of width and depth, the usual procedure is to adopt a recommended
value.
 The End
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