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Basic Terminologies in Research

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Basic Terminologies in Research

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suzakazi987
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© © All Rights Reserved
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BASIC TERMINOLOGIES IN

RESEARCH
PROPOSITION
A proposition is similar to a hypothesis, but its main purpose is to
suggest a link between two concepts in a situation where the link
cannot be verified by experiment. As a result, it relies heavily on
prior research, reasonable assumptions and existing correlative
evidence. A scientist can use a proposition to spur further research
on
a question or pose one in hopes that further evidence or experimental
methods will be discovered that will make it a testable hypothesis.
PROPOSITION EXAMPLE
A proposition may be univariate, bivariate or multivariate,
depending
on the number of variables.
⦿ Smoking is injurious to health
⦿ The higher the flow of in migrants in the city, the higher the
unemployment rate
⦿ The higher the flow of in migrants in the city, the higher the
unemployment rate and crime rate
HYPOTHESIS
A hypothesis is an assumption made before any
research has been done. It is formed so that it can
be tested to see if it might be true.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN
HYPOTHESIS AND PROPOSITION
Hypothesis Proposition

Hypothesis is a formal statement Proposition are statements


that explain some outcomes. concerned with the relationship
among concepts.
Hypothesis is a logical Proposition is not a logical
measurement. measurement.
It is intellectual thinking based. It is hypothesis based.

It is testable for validity. It is not testable for validity.

Example- Is there any Example: Smoking is injurious to


relationship between smoking health.
and lung ailments.
AXIOMS
⦿An axiom is a statement or proposition which is
regarded as being established, accepted or self
evidently true but not testable.
Let us consider the following proposition
a) Proposition 1: If X then Y
b) Proposition 2: If Y then Z
c) Proposition 3: If X then Z
If the proposition a and b are true then the deducted
proposition c is also true. then the propostion a and b
are called axioms.
THEORY
⦿A theory is “an idea to explain something or a set of
guiding principles” or, ”a set of statements or
principles devised to explain a group of facts or
phenomena, especially one that has been repeatedly
tested or is widely accepted.”
⦿A theory is an explanation for why or how something
happens that is backed by a lot of data collected over
time and from different circumstances.
EXAMPLES OF THEORY AND HYPOTHESIS

⦿ Theory: Einstein's theory of relativity is a theory because it has


been tested and verified innumerable times, with results
consistently verifying Einstein's conclusion. However, simply
because Einstein's conclusion has become a theory does not
mean testing of this theory has stopped; all science is ongoing.
See also the Big Bang theory, germ theory, and climate change.
⦿ Hypothesis: One might think that a prisoner who learns a work
skill while in prison will be less likely to commit a crime when
released. This is a hypothesis, an "educated guess."
The scientific method can be used to test this hypothesis, to
either prove it is false or prove that it warrants further study.
(Note: Simply because a hypothesis is not found to be false does
not mean it is true all or even most of the time. If it is
consistently true after considerable time and research, it may be
on its way to becoming a theory.)
KEY DIFFERENCES BETWEEN A
THEORY AND A HYPOTHESIS
MODEL
⦿ A model of a system or process is a theoretical description that
is being used to understand how the system or process works,
or how it might work or how the similar results achieve.
CONCEPTUAL MODEL
⦿ A conceptual model is a representation of a system, made of the
composition of concepts which are used to help
people know, understand, or simulate a subject the model
represents.
THE ACADEMIC RESEARCH
MODEL
Select area of the investigation

Review previous Research

Formulate hypothesis

Design study to Test Hypothesis

Conduct Study

Analyze Results

Develop Yes
No Do results
alternative
support Report results
Explanation
Hypothesis?
CONCEPT
⦿A generalized idea about a class of objects, attributes,
occurrences, or processes that has been given a name
⦿In organizational theory, “leadership,”
“productivity,” and “morale” are concepts.
⦿In the theory of finance, “gross national product,”
“asset,” and “inflation” are concepts.
⦿In marketing, customer satisfaction, market share
and loyalty are important concepts.
VARIABLE
⦿ A variable is a measurable quantity or quality that changes over
time, or takes different values or qualities in different situations.
TYPES OF VARIABLE
⦿Qualitative
⦿Quantitative
◼ Discrete
◼ Continuous
QUALITATIVE VARIABLE
⦿Describes the quality
⦿Non-numerical format
Counts
Cannot order or measure
⦿Examples
◼ gender
◼ marital status
◼ geographical region
◼ job title….
QUANTITATIVE VARIABLE
⦿Frequencies
⦿Measurements
DISCRETE VARIABLE
⦿Measurements are isolated
⦿Examples:
◼ number of employees of a company
◼ number of incorrect answers on a test
◼ number of participants in a program…
CONTINUOUS VARIABLE
⦿Measurements can take on any value -
usually within some range
⦿Examples:
◼ Age
◼ Income
⦿Arithmetic operations such as differences
and averages make sense.
DEPENDENT VARIABLE

A dependent variable is a criterion or a


variable that is to be predicted and explained.
Example- Average hourly rate or pay may be a
dependent variable.
INDEPENDENT VARIABLE
A variable that is expected to influence the
dependent variable.
Example- number of years of experience may
be treated as an independent variable.
DEDUCTIVE REASONING
⦿The logical process of deriving a conclusion
from a known premise or something known to
be true.
DEDUCTIVE REASONING
Here is a classic example:

⦿Socrates was a man (premise)


⦿All men are mortal (premise).
⦿Socrates was mortal (conclusion)

As you can see, if the premises are true


(and they are), then it simply isn't possible
for the conclusion to be false.
INDUCTIVE REASONING
⦿The logical process of establishing a general
proposition on the basis of observation of
particular facts.
INDUCTIVE REASONING
Here is an example:
⦿Socrates was Greek (premise).
⦿Most Greeks eat fish (premise).
⦿Socrates ate fish (conclusion).
In this example, even if both premises are true, it is still
possible for the conclusion to be false (maybe Socrates was
allergic to fish, for example). Words which tend to mark an
argument as inductive—and hence probabilistic rather than
Necessary include words like
probably, likely, possibly and reasonably.

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