INFORMATION

MANAGEMENT
Lecture 1
The Context of Database
Entity-Relationship Model
Entities
• An entity is any object in the system that we want to
model and store information about. It can be a real-world
object.
• Example: In a school database, students, teachers,
classes, and courses offered can be considered as
entities.
• An entity set is a collection of similar types of entities. An
entity set may contain entities with attribute sharing similar
values. For example, a students set may contain all the
students of a school.
Attributes
• Entities are represented by means of their properties called
attributes. All attributes have values. For example, a
student entity may have name, class, and age as attributes.
• Types of Attributes
1. Simple attribute: simple attributes are atomic values,
which cannot be divided further. E.g. phone number.
2. Composite attribute: these are made of more than one
simple attribute. E.g. name may have first_name and
last_name.
3. Derived attribute: derived attributes are the attributes
that do not exist in the physical database, but their values
are derived from other attributes present in the database.
E.g. age can be derive from date_of_birth.
Attributes
4. Single-value attribute: Single-value attributes contain
single value. E.g. SSS.
5. Multi-value attribute: Multi-value attributes may
contain more than one values. E.g. phone number,
email_address.

• These attribute types can come together in a way like:

• Simple single-valued attributes
• Simple multi-valued attributes
• Composite single-valued attributes
• Composite multi-valued attributes
Relationships
• A relationship is an association of entities where the
association includes one entity from each participating
entity type.
• A relationship is established by a foreign key in one entity
linking to the primary key in another.
• A set of relationships of similar type is called a
relationship set. Like entities, a relationship too can have
attributes. These attributes are called descriptive
attributes.
Degrees of Relationship (Cardinality)
• The degree of relationship (also known as cardinality)
is the number of occurrences in one entity which are
associated (or linked) to the number of occurrences in
another.
• There are three degrees of relationship, known as:

• One-to-One (1:1)
• One-to-Many (1:M)
• Many-to-Many (M:M)
One-to-One (1:1)
• One entity from entity set A can be associated with at
most one entity set B and vice versa.
One-to-Many (1:M)
• One entity from entity set A can be associated with more
than one entities of entity set B, however an entity from
entity set B can be associated with at most one entity.
Many-to-one (M:1)
• More than one entities from entity set A can be associated
with at most one entity of entity set B, however an entity
from entity set B can be associated with more than one
entity from entity set A.
Many-to-Many (M:M)
• One entity from A can be associated with more than one
entity from B and vice versa.
Relational Databases
• A relational database is a set of formally described
tables from which data can be accessed or reassembled
in many different ways without having to reorganize the
database tables.
• The relational database was invented in 1970 by E. F.
Codd, a young programmer at IBM.

• Examples of relational databases:

• Microsoft SQL Server, Oracle Database, MySQL and IBM
DB2.
Disadvantages of Traditional File Processing
System
• Data Redundancy

• Data Inconsistency

• Lack of Data Integration

• Program Dependence

• Data Dependence

• Limited Data Sharing

• Poor Data Control

Advantages of the Database Approach

• Improved Data Sharing

• Improve Data Security

• Better Data Integration

• Minimize Data Inconsistency

• Improved Data Access

• Improve Decision Making

• Improved End-User Productivity

Cost and Risks of the Database Approach

• New, Specialized Personnel

• Installation and Management Cost and

Complexity
• Conversion Costs

• Need for Explicit Backup and Recovery

• Organizational Conflict
Components of the Database Environment
• DBMS have several components, each performing very
significant tasks in the database management system
environment. This are the list of components within the
database and its environment.
Software Data Manager
Hardware Database Engine
Data Data Dictionary
Procedures Report Writer
Database Access Language
Query Processor
Run Time Database Manager
Range of Database Applications
• Personal Database - designed to support to store and to
maintain the personal information.
• Workgroup Database - designed to support to maintain
database by a group of people.
• Department Database - approach is designed to support
to maintain departmental wise activities in an
organization. It consist department information ,
procedures and functions.
• Enterprise Database - designed to support to maintain
organization database . It not only control the
organizational database but also making decisions to
support the database . It perform all the activities of an
organization.
History of Database System
• 1950s and early 1960s
• Magnetic tapes
• Processing of data consisted of reading data from one or
more tapes and writing data to a new tape
• Data could also be input from punched card decks, and
output to printers
• Tapes (and card decks) could be read only sequentially,
and data sizes were much larger than main memory
History of Database System
• Late 1960s and 1970s
• Widespread use of hard disks change the scenario for
data processing greatly
• Edgar F. Codd – worked for International Business
Machines; invented the relational model for database
management, the theoretical basis for relational
databases and relational management systems; later
won the prestigious Association of Computing Machinery
Turing Award for his work.
History of Database System
• 1980s
• Research rational prototype evolve into commercial
systems
• DB2 form IBM is the first DBMS product based on the relational
model
• SQL becomes industrial standard
• Parallel and distributed database system
• Object-relational database systems allow both relational
and object views of data in the same database
History of Database System
• Early 1990s
• The SQL (Structured Query Language/Data System)
language was designed primarily for decision support
applications, which are query-intensive, yet the mainstay
of databases in the 1980s was transaction-processing
applications, which are update-intensive
• Many database vendors introduced parallel database
products in this period. Database vendors also began to
add object-relational support to their databases
History of Database System
• 1990s

• Explosive growth of the World Wide Web

• deployed much more extensively than ever before

• no downtime for scheduled maintenance activities

• Database systems also had to supportWeb interfaces to

data
History of Database System
• 2000s
• The first half of the 2000s saw the emerging of XML and
the associated query language XQuery as a new
database technology
• This period also saw a significant growth in use of open-
source database systems, particularly PostgreSQL and
MySQL
• The latter part of the decade has seen growth in
specialized databases for data analysis, in particular
column-stores, which in effect store each column of a
table as a separate array, and highly parallel database
systems designed for analysis of very large data sets
History of Database System
• Data-storage systems have been built to handle the
data management requirements of very
large Web sites such as Amazon, Facebook, Google,
Microsoft and Yahoo!, and some of these are now offered
as Web services that can be used by
application developers