Chapter 8:

The musculoskeletal system allows movement

8.1 Types of muscles

Types of muscles
There are three types of muscle:
• Skeletal muscles move bones and enable us to walk, run and carry out a
wide range of voluntary physical activities. These muscles are under
conscious control and are attached to the bones of the skeleton. They also
give the body its form and contours, and allow it to maintain posture.
• Smooth muscles, or involuntary muscles (not under conscious control),
control movement within internal organs such as the stomach and
intestines.
• Cardiac muscle is heart muscle; When cardiac muscle contracts, it
reduces the space in the chambers of the heart and pushes the blood
from the heart into the blood vessels.
The properties of contractibility, extensibility and elasticity allows muscles to
work together to create movement.
8.1 Types of muscles
8.2 Structure of skeletal muscle

Structure of skeletal muscle

Muscle cells are held together in bundles. A sheath of connective tissue
called the perimysium surrounds each bundle so that it can function as an
individual unit. The connective tissue allows adjacent bundles to slide easily
over one another as they contract. Sheaths of connective tissue called
epimysium also hold the bundles together, and towards the end of the
muscle they taper and blend to form the tendon.
8.2 Structure of skeletal muscle

Structure of skeletal muscle fibres

Muscle bundles are composed of muscle cells that lie parallel to each other.
Each muscle cell, called a muscle fibre, is an elongated cylinder with many
nuclei. Around the cell is a thin, transparent plasma membrane, the
sarcolemma, containing cytoplasm, called the sarcoplasm. Cells are
between 10 and 100 micrometres in diameter and vary in length from a few
millimetres to several centimetres.
8.2 Structure of skeletal muscle

Structure of myofibrils
Within the sarcoplasm of each fibre are thread-like myofibrils. These lie
parallel to each other and run the length of the fibre. There may be
anywhere from hundreds to several thousands of these myofibrils in each
fibre. A tubular network called the sarcoplasmic reticulum surrounds the
myofibrils. This is a storage site for calcium ions, which are released during
muscle contractions.
Each myofibril is composed of many smaller myofilaments, made of protein,
which are the actual units involved in contraction of the muscle. There are
two types of myofilaments:
• thick myofilaments, composed mainly of the protein myosin
• thin myofilaments, composed mainly of the protein actin.
The arrangement of thick and thin filaments within a myofibril gives a
banded effect to the muscle. These striations allow myofibrils to be divided
into units called sarcomeres.
8.2 Structure of skeletal muscle
8.3 How muscles work

Sliding filament theory

When muscles contract, the sarcomeres shorten. The sliding filament theory
suggests that this occurs because the actin and myosin filaments slide over
one another.
8.3 How muscles work

Skeletal muscles working together

Muscles are attached to the bones of the skeleton by fibrous, inelastic
connective tissue called tendons.
Muscles work in pairs, with the muscles fulfilling opposite roles. Coordination
of the paired muscles provides body movement, with one of the pair
producing movement of bones in one direction and the other producing
movement in the opposite direction (agonists).

Biceps and triceps muscles in the arm and hamstring and

quadriceps muscles in the leg are agonistic muscles
8.3 How muscles work

Muscle tone
Muscle tone is maintaining partial contraction of skeletal muscles. At any
one time, some muscle fibres are contracted while others are relaxed. Such
partial contraction tightens a muscle, but not enough fibres are contracting at
the one time to produce movement. Muscle tone is caused by many different
fibres taking turns to contract. The fibres relieve one another so smoothly
that the contraction can be kept up for long periods of time.
Muscle tone holds many of our body parts in position. For example, the head
is held up by the partial contraction of the neck muscles. It determines a
person’s posture.
8.4 Overview of the skeletal system

The skeletal system is made up of the bones and their associated

structures: tendons, ligaments and joints.
Functions of the skeleton
• Provides a scaffold to support the weight of the rest of the body.
• Facilitates movement by being points of attachment for muscles.
• Protects vital internal organs.
• Produces red blood cells.
• Stores and releases minerals and fats.
8.4 Overview of the skeletal system

Types of bone
8.4 Overview of the skeletal system

Bones of the skeleton

The adult human skeleton is usually made up of 206 individual bones. These
are divided into two sections:
• The axial skeleton consists of the bones that lie around the central axis of
the body. It provides the main support for erect posture and protection of
the central nervous system and the organs contained within the thorax.
The bones that form the skull, vertebral column, ribs and sternum
(breastbone) make up the axial skeleton.
• The appendicular skeleton consists of the bones of the upper and lower
limbs, the pectoral girdle (shoulder) and pelvic (hip) girdle. These two
girdles allow for the articulation of the limbs with the axial skeleton.
8.4 Overview of the skeletal system

Axial skeleton: a anterior view; b posterior

view
8.4 Overview of the skeletal system

Appendicular skeleton
8.5 Structure of bone and cartilage

Macroscopic structure of long bones

A long bone consists of:
• Diaphysis – the shaft making up the main portion of the bone. The
diaphysis is a hollow cylinder of compact bone surrounding a medullary
cavity.
• Epiphyses – the enlarged ends of the bone, covered with a thin layer of
articular cartilage. The epiphyses have compact bone on the outside, but
their central regions contain spongy or cancellous bone.
• Periosteum – the dense, white, fibrous outer covering of the bone. There
is no periosteum at the joints, where the bone is covered with an articular
cartilage.
8.5 Structure of bone and cartilage

Microscopic structure of bones

Bone is classified as a connective tissue. Connective tissues consist of cells
separated from each other by large amounts of non-cellular material called
matrix. In bone, inorganic salts of calcium and phosphate are deposited in
the matrix. These increase its rigidity and strength, and make it the hardest
of the connective tissues.
Bone has a very complex structure.
8.5 Structure of bone and cartilage

Structure of compact bone

Compact bone consists of many similar units called osteons or Haversian
systems that run parallel to the long axis of the bone. This gives the bone its
maximum strength. Each osteon has:
• a central canal (or Haversian canal) at its centre
• concentric layers of bony matrix called lamellae surrounding the central
canal
• lacunae, which are small spaces in the matrix between the lamellae
• a bone cell, or osteocyte, occupying each lacuna
• tiny canals, known as canaliculi, running between the lacunae
• projections from the bone cells entering the canaliculi and making contact
with adjacent bone cells, allowing materials to be passed from cell to cell
• at least one blood capillary, and possibly nerves and lymph capillaries, in
the central canal of each osteon.
8.5 Structure of bone and cartilage
8.5 Structure of bone and cartilage

Structure of spongy bone

Spongy bone consists of an irregular arrangement of thin, bony plates called
trabeculae. The bone cells occupy spaces in the trabeculae, and nerves and
blood vessels pass through irregular spaces in the matrix.
8.5 Structure of bone and cartilage

Structure of cartilage
Cartilage is also a connective tissue. It contains numerous fibres made of a
protein called collagen. These protein fibres are embedded in a firm matrix
of a protein–carbohydrate complex called chondrin. This firm matrix enables
cartilage to function as a structural support, while the presence of fibres
gives cartilage a certain amount of flexibility. Because of these properties, it
is found on the surface of bones at the joints, in the trachea and bronchi,
and forms the nose, larynx and outer ear.
Cartilage has a firm matrix in which collagen fibres are embedded. Within
the matrix are spaces that contain the cartilage cells called chondroblasts.
These cells produce matrix and gradually become surrounded by it until they
are trapped in small spaces called lacunae. Once this has occurred, the
cells are considered to be mature and are referred to as chondrocytes.
8.5 Structure of bone and cartilage

Microscopic structure of cartilage

The collagen fibres in the matrix range from extremely fine to quite coarse.
This variation in the fibrous structure of cartilage is used to classify it into
three types:
• Hyaline cartilage: contains many fine, closely packed collagenous fibres
throughout the matrix. The fine fibres give the cartilage strength and
flexibility. Makes up the rings of the trachea and bronchi.
• Elastic cartilage: has conspicuous elastic fibres. It also contains
collagenous fibres similar to those in hyaline cartilage, but they are not so
closely packed. Elastic cartilage provides flexible elastic support in places
such as the external ear.
• Fibrocartilage: has a coarse appearance from the parallel bundles of
thick collagenous fibres that make up this tissue. The fibres are not
compacted as much as in hyaline cartilage, and therefore can be
compressed slightly. Ideal for regions where the weight of the body is
being supported or where there is a need to withstand heavy pressure, for
example in the intervertebral discs of the spinal column, where it provides
a cushion between the vertebrae.
8.5 Structure of bone and cartilage
8.6 Movement of bones

Types of joints
Fibrous or fixed joints
When no movement occurs between the bones concerned, the joint is
described as fibrous (or fixed or immovable). The bones are held in place by
fibrous connective tissue, as is the case with the sutures of the skull.
Cartilaginous or slightly movable joints
Cartilaginous joints are held in place by cartilage, which allows slight
movement to occur. The junction of the two pelvic bones (the pubic
symphysis), joints between adjacent vertebrae, and the joints between the
ribs and the sternum are examples of slightly movable or cartilaginous joints.
8.6 Movement of bones

Synovial or freely movable joints

Synovial joints are freely movable, with the amount of movement limited by ligaments,
muscles, tendons and adjoining bones. They are categorised by the type of
movement that occurs between the articulating surfaces of the bones.
• Ball-and-socket joints form when the spherical head of one bone fits into a cup-like
cavity of another.
• Hinge joints allow movement in one plane only, much like that of a hinged door.
They form when the convex surface of one bone fits into the concave surface of
another.
• Pivot joints are formed when the rounded, pointed or conical end of one bone
articulates with a ring, formed partly by bone and partly by a ligament.
• Gliding joints allow movement in any direction in a side-to-side or back-and-forth
motion, restricted only by the ligaments or bony processes surrounding the joint.
• Saddle joints are where two bones forming the joint are both saddle-shaped – that
is, concave in one direction and convex in the other.
• Condyloid (or ellipsoid) joints have one surface of bone slightly convex that fits into
a slightly concave depression in another bone.
8.6 Movement of bones
8.6 Movement of bones

Structure of a synovial joint

In a synovial joint there is a space, or synovial cavity, between the
articulating surfaces of the bones. A synovial membrane surrounds the
synovial cavity, and there is articular cartilage on the bone surfaces.
The knee joint, including the patella, is a typical example.

The knee joint: a in section, viewed from the side;

and b viewed from the front to show ligaments
8.6 Movement of bones

Keeping joints together

Several factors keep the articular surfaces of synovial joints together:
• the fit of the articulating bones – for example, the way the head of the
humerus fits into the socket of the scapula to form the shoulder joint
• the strength of the joint ligaments holding the bones together – for
example the hip joint
• the tension provided by the muscles around the joint: in the knee joint, the
fibrous capsule is formed principally from tendons attached to the muscles
acting on the joint.
8.6 Movement of bones

Movement at a joint
Each joint is capable of specific types of movements.
Flexion and extension
Flexion, or bending, decreases the angle between the articulating bones,
meaning the bones come closer together. For example, when the elbow is
flexed, the lower arm (with the radius and ulna) moves closer to the upper
arm (with the humerus).
Extension, or straightening, increases the angle between the articulating
bones, moving the bones further apart. For example, when the knee is
extended, the lower leg (with the tibia and fibula) moves further away from
the upper leg (with the femur).
8.6 Movement of bones

Abduction and adduction

Abduction is movement away from the midline of the body. For example,
lifting the arms upwards and away from the body is abduction; while
movement towards the midline of the body is adduction (e.g. when returning
the arms to the sides after abduction).
Rotation
Rotation is the movement of a bone around its long axis – for example,
turning the head from left to right occurs due to rotation at the joint between
the first two vertebrae.
8.7 Effects of ageing on the musculoskeletal system

Osteoporosis
If the loss of bone mass becomes sufficient to impair normal functioning, it is
called osteoporosis. As bone density decreases, the risk of fractures
increases so that even minor bumps or falls can result in serious fractures.
The bones most likely to be affected by osteoporosis are the vertebrae, ribs,
pelvis, wrist and upper arm, although any bone can be affected.
To prevent osteoporosis, people need an adequate calcium intake in their
diet, an adequate amount of vitamin D (either through exposure to sunlight
or by dietary intake), and plenty of exercise.
Treatment for osteoporosis includes lifestyle changes to increase calcium
intake, vitamin D production and exercise. Medication can sometimes be
used to prevent or to treat the condition.
8.7 Effects of ageing on the musculoskeletal system

Osteoarthritis
Osteoarthritis is a gradual change in the joints that occurs over time and is
frequently associated with ageing. However, other factors including irritation
of the joints, wear and abrasion can also be involved. The joint cartilage
deteriorates, and so the bone surfaces are no longer protected. The
exposed bone begins to wear away and bony spurs or growths may develop
from the exposed ends of the bone forming the joint. These growths and
spurs decrease the space within the joint cavity, restricting movement of the
joint.
The symptoms of osteoarthritis often appear in middle age, and almost
everyone has some symptoms by the age of 70, but these symptoms may
be minor.
There is no known cure, but treatment may include medication to relieve
pain, physiotherapy to strengthen muscles around the affected joints,
surgery to realign bones or joint replacement surgery.