01CE0410 – Computer Network

Unit - 1
Introduction of
Computer Network

Prof. Chirag Bhalodia

Computer Engineering Department
Outline
• Understanding of Network & Internet
 Data Communication
• Categories of Network – Wired & Wireless
• Types of Network – LAN, MAN, WAN, PAN
• Transmission Modes
• Understanding of Delay and its types
• Network Topologies – Bus, Star, Ring, Mesh, Hybrid
• OSI Model (Layered Approach)
• TCP/IP Model
• Switching Techniques: Circuit Switching & Packet Switching
• Transmission Media
Understanding
Network & Internet
Understanding of Network & Internet
 What is Network?
• A group or system of interconnected
people or things.
• Example:
 Group of People (Social media)
 Railway tracks
 Highways
 Branch offices connected with Head
Office
Understanding of Network & Internet
 What is Computer Network?
• Two or more computer systems connected with each other is known as computer network.

• A computer network is a system that connects two or more computing devices for transmitting
and sharing information.
• Example:
 Intranet
 Internet
Understanding of Network & Internet
 What is Internet?
• The internet is a type of world-wide computer network.

• Internet is a “network of networks”.

• Internet is consist of academic, business and government networks, which carry various
information and services.

• It is global communication accessed through the web.

• Internet deals with protocols and standards.

• Example:
 E-mail
 Web access and services
 file transfer
Understanding of Network & Internet
 Protocols
• A protocol is a set of rules that governs data communications.

• Protocol defines the method of communication, how to communicate, when to

communicate etc.

• Syntax: Syntax means format of data or the structure how it is pretend e.g. First eight bits
for sender address, next eight bits for receiver address and rest of the bits for
message/information.
1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 . . .

• Semantics: Semantics is the meaning of each section of bits e.g. The address bit means the
route of transmission or final destination of the message.

• Timing: Timing means, at what time data can be sent and how fast data can be sent.
Understanding of Network & Internet
 Standards
• Standards provide guidelines to the manufacturers, vendors, government agencies and
service provider. It ensure that interconnectivity and compatibility of the device.

• Standards help in maintaining market competitiveness and guarantees interoperability.

• Data communication standards are of two categories: De facto and De jure

• De facto: De facto means by facts or by convention. The standards that are not approved
by any organization but are widely used are De facto standards. These are established by
manufacturers.

• De jure: De jure means by law or by regulation. These are the standards that are
recognized officially by an organization.
Understanding of Network & Internet
 Characteristics of Computer Network
• Security
• Reliability
• Scalability
• Flow of data
• High Performance
• Fault Tolerance
• Quality of Service (QoS)
Understanding of Network & Internet
 Application of Computer Network
• Resource sharing such as printers and storage devices
• Financial Services
• Teleconferencing
• Cable Television
• Information Services
• Electronic Messaging
• Electronic Data Interchange (EDI)
• Directory services (Websites)
• Cellular Telephone
Understanding of Network & Internet
 What is Data Communication?
• Data
 Data refers to any information.

• Communication
 Communication means sending or receiving information.

• Data Communication
 Data Communication is a process of exchanging data or information through a
communication device.
 Ex., Computer, Mobile Phones, Tablets.
Understanding of Network & Internet
 Characteristics of Data Communication
• Delivery
 The data should be delivered to the correct destination and correct user.

• Accuracy
 The communication system should deliver the data accurately, without introducing any
errors. The data may get corrupted during transmission affecting the accuracy of the
delivered data.

• Timeliness
 Audio and Video data has to be delivered in a timely manner without any delay; such a
data delivery is called real time transmission of data.

• Jitter
 It is the variation in the packet arrival time. Uneven Jitter may affect the timeliness of data
being transmitted.
Categories of
Network
Categories of Network
• On the basis of medium network is divided into two categories: Wired Network and
Wireless Network.

 Wired Network
• As we all know, “wired” refers to any physical medium made up of cables. Copper wire,
twisted pair, or fiber optic cables are all options.
• A wired network employs wires to link devices to the Internet or another network, such as
laptops or desktop PCs connected with each other or different networking devices.

 Wireless Network
• “Wireless” means without wire, media that is made up of electromagnetic waves (EM
Waves) or infrared waves. Antennas or sensors will be present on all wireless devices.
• Cellular phones, wireless sensors, TV remotes, satellite disc receivers, and laptops with
WLAN cards are all examples of wireless devices.
• For data or voice communication, a wireless network uses radio-frequency waves rather
than wires.
Categories of Network
 Exercise
• Difference between wired vs wireless
Types of Network
Types of Network
• Computer networks can be categories by their size as well as their purpose.

• The size of a network can be expressed by the geographic area.

• Some of the different networks based on size are:

 PAN (Personal Area Network)
 LAN (Local Area Network)
 MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
 WAN (Wide Area Network)
Types of Network
 PAN (Personal Area Network)
• Personal Area Network is used for connecting the computer devices of personal use is known as
Personal Area Network.

• Personal computer devices that are used to develop the personal area network are the laptop,
mobile phones, media player and play stations.
• PAN is the most basic type of
computer network. This network is
restrained to a single person, that is,
communication between the
computer devices is centered only to
an individual’s work space.

• PAN offers a network range of 5 to 10

meters from a person to the device
providing communication.
Types of Network
 LAN (Local Area Network)
• LAN is a group of computers connected to each
other in a small area such as building, office.

• LAN is used for connecting two or more

personal computers through a communication
medium such as twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.

• The basic idea of LAN is to provide easy access

to Data Terminal Equipment with in the office.

• A LAN is a system composed of computer

hardware and transmission media and software.

• Using LAN not only computer but access printer,

plotter, database server etc..
Types of Network
 LAN (Local Area Network)
• The LAN is used as private network, so organization can
add one or more facility.

• The range of LAN is maximum 5 Kms to 10 Kms.

• LAN characteristics:
 Personal computers, printers, etc., are connected
through LAN.
 LANs are very easy to design and troubleshoot.
 A central database is used to connect the LAN
networks.
 The data transfer rate of LAN is 10 Gbits/s.
 LANs are limited to local areas.
Types of Network
 MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
• A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a computer network that interconnects with computer in a
metropolitan area like city.
• MAN is a larger than LAN but smaller than the area covered by a WAN. It is also used to
interconnection of several local area network.
• A MAN is limited to city or group of nearby corporate offices. Range of MAN is 10 km to 100 km.
• MAN is designed with two unidirectional buses.
Each bus is independent of the other in the
transfer of traffic.
• MANs are based on fiber-optic transmission
technology an provide high speed
interconnection between sites.
• It can support both data and voice. IEEE
standard of MAN is 802.6.
Types of Network
 MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
• MAN characteristics:
 The geographical area covered is larger than LAN.
 Range of MAN is 10 km to 100 km.
 The television network is the prime example of MAN.
Types of Network
 WAN (Wide Area Network)
• A network that covers a larger area such as a city, state, country or the world is called Wide Area
Network.
• A wide area network (WAN) is a computer network that exists over a large-scale geographical
area.
• A WAN connects different networks, including local area networks (LAN) and metropolitan area
networks (MAN).

Asia

America

Africa
Types of Network
 WAN (Wide Area Network)
• In the WAN, when the packet is sent from one router to another via one or more intermediate
routers, the packet is received at each intermediate router in its entirely.

• WAN uses point-to-point, store and forward, or packet switched subnet.

• WAN characteristics:
 The largest area, like a country, is covered by WAN.
 Different metropolitan countries are linked through the telecommunications network.
 WAN may be interconnected in and around the world.
 The connection between the networks is established through telephone lines or satellites.
Types of Network
 Summery of LAN MAN WAN
LANs, MANs and WANs

Full-form Local Area Network Metropolitan Area Wide Area Network

Network
Transmission speed High comparatively Average comparatively Low comparatively
Propagation delay Short Moderate High
Congestion Low comparatively Average comparatively High comparatively
Maintenance Easy Difficult than LAN Difficult than MAN and
LAN
Scope Small (1 to 10 Km) Multiple Building or Multiple city or country
e.g. Small building, cluster Society or in a city.(upto (beyond 100Km)
of building, organization 100 Km area)
Ownership Private Private or public Private or public
Medium Cable Telephone lines Telephone lines, satellite
Transmission Modes
Transmission Modes
• Transmission means transferring of data between two devices.

• The way in which data is transmitted from one device to another device is known as
transmission modes.

• It is also known as communication mode.

• There are three types of transmission mode:-

Transmission
Modes

Simplex Half Duplex Full Duplex

Transmission Modes
 Simplex
• In Simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, like as one-way street.

• Example: FM Radio, TV Broadcasting, Keyboard, Monitors.

• Only one of the two devices on a link can transmit, the other can only receive.

• The simplex mode can use the entire capacity of the channel to send data in one direction.
Transmission Modes
 Half Duplex
• In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time.

• Example: Walkie- talkie.

• When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa.

• The half-duplex mode is used in cases where there is no need for communication in both direction
at the same time.

• The entire capacity of the channel can be utilized for each direction.
Transmission Modes
 Full Duplex
• In full-duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously.

• Example: Telephone, Mobile Phones

• In full duplex mode, sharing can occur in two ways:

 Either the link must contain two physically separate transmission paths, one for sending and
other for receiving.
 Or the capacity is divided between signals travelling in both directions.

• Full-duplex mode is used when communication in both direction is required all the time.
Comparison of Transmission Modes
Parameters Simplex Half Duplex Full Duplex

Direction of unidirectional bidirectional, but one at a bidirectional

communication time.
Send / Receive A device can either send Both the devices can send Both the devices can
or receive the data. and receive the data, but send and receive the data
one at a time. simultaneously.

Performance Simplex mode Half duplex mode The Full-duplex mode

performance is lower in performance is better than has better performance
compare to half and full simplex but lower then among simplex and half-
duplex mode. full duplex mode. duplex mode.

Bandwidth Utilization Maximum Maximum Shared

Example Radio, Television Walkie-Talkies Telephone Network,
Mobile Phones
Understanding of
Delay
Understanding of Delay
• A packet during its travel from one node to the subsequent node it suffers from different types of
delay at each node. Types of
Delay

Processing Queuing Transmission Propagation

Delay Delay Delay Delay
• All delays accumulated together and result in a larger delay called total nodal delay.
Understanding of Delay
 Processing Delay
• Processing delay is a nodal delay and it is defined as the time required examining the packets
header and determining where to direct the packet.

• The processing delay is denoted by dproc

• Processing delay also include delay due to the time needed to check for bit-level errors in the
packet that occurred in transmitting the packet’s bits from the upstream router to other router.
Understanding of Delay
 Queuing Delay
• The queuing delay is denoted dqueue

• The queuing delay is observed at the queue, the packet experiences a queuing delay as it waits to
be transmitted over the link.

• The delay of a packet can vary from packet to packet. If the queue is empty and no other packet is
currently being transmitted, then packet’s queuing delay zero.

• When the traffic heavy and packets are waiting to be transmitted, the queuing delay will be high.
Understanding of Delay
 Transmission Delay
• The transmission delay is defined as the amount of time required to transmit all of the packet bits
over the link.

• The transmission delay is denoted by dtrans

• The transmission delay is also called as store-and forward delay.

• It is ration packet length(bits) to transmission rate (bits/sec).

Transmission delay = Packet length / Transmission rate = L/R
Understanding of Delay
 Propagation Delay
• The propagation delay is defined as time required by a packet to propagate from transmitting node
to the receiving node.

• The propagation delay is denoted dprop

• The propagation speed of a packet depends on characteristic of physical medium of the link and
the distance between the nodes.
Understanding of Delay
 Total Nodal Delay
• The total node delay experienced by a packet is sum of processing delay, queuing delay,
transmission delay and propagation delay within a network.

• The total delay is very significant parameter of a network.

Total nodal delay = dproc + dqueue + dtrans + dprop

Throughput & Loss
 Throughput
• In data transmission, network throughput is the amount of data moved successfully from one place
to another in a given time period, and typically measured in bits per second (bps), as in megabits
per second (Mbps) or gigabits per second (Gbps).

 Packet Loss
• Packet loss occurs when one or more data packets travelling across a computer network fail to
reach their destination.

• Packet loss is typically caused by network congestion.

• Packet loss is measured as a percentage of packets lost with respect to packets sent.
Network Topology
Network Topology
• Physical or Logical layout of structure called topology, in which all nodes are
connected.

• Network topology is the arrangement of the elements of a communication network.

• The physical topology of LAN refers to the way in which the stations are physically
interconnected.

• Feature of network topology:

 The topology should be flexible. You can increase or decrease number of nodes in topology.
 The cost of physical media and installation should be minimum.
 The network should not have any single point of complete failures.

• Each topology has its own strengths and weakness.

Network Topology
 Types of topology

Types of
Topology

Bus Star Ring Mesh Hybrid

Topology Topology Topology Topology Topology
Bus Topology
• A bus topology is a network setup in which each computer and network device are
connected to a single cable or backbone.

• The cable to which the nodes connect is called a "backbone".

• When one computer sends a signal up (and down) in the cable, all the computers on
network receive the information, but only one accepts the information (using address
matching). The rest discard the message.
Bus Topology
• Bus is passive topology because it
requires termination. Cable cannot
be left unterminated in a bus
network.

• Terminators were connected to each

end of cable.

• A host on a bus network is called

a Station or workstation.
Bus Topology
 Advantages:
• Easy to use and easy to install.
• A repeater can also be used to extend a bus topology.
• Low cost.

 Disadvantages:
• Heavy network traffic can slow a bus network.
• It is difficult to troubleshoot a bus topology.
• Failure of backbone cable, all stations have been disconnected.
• Difficult to add new node.
Star Topology
• A star topology, sometimes known as a star
network. It is a network topology in which
each device is connected to a central hub.

• In this network arrangement, all devices

linked to a central network device are
displayed as a star.

• Easy to control and traffic flow is simple.

Data travels from the sender to central hub
and then to the receiver.

• A dedicated link is provided to host and

centralize hub. Centralized device may be
hub or switch.
 Star Topology
• This image is an example of star topology that
will help you to make understand clearly
about star topology.

• You can see Hub is a central device through

which all other nodes (Clients, Servers, and
other Networks) are connected.

• Each node in this diagram has a direct point-

to-point link to the central device, yet no single
node can communicate directly with the
others.

• Therefore, before reaching the destination,

each message has to pass through this central
device (Hub or Switch).
Star Topology
 Advantages:
• It is easy to modify and new nodes to a star network without disturbing the rest of the
network.
• Troubleshooting techniques are easy.
• Failures of any node do not bring down the whole star network.

 Disadvantages:
• If the central hub fails, the whole network fails to operate.
• Each device requires its own cable segment.
• Installation can be moderately difficult, especially in the hierarchical network.
Ring Topology
• A ring topology is a network architecture in which
devices are connected in a ring structure and send
information to each other based on their ring
node's neighbouring node.

• In a ring topology, each computer is connected to

the next computer, with the last one connected to
the first.

• The signal travel on the cable in only one

direction. Since each computer retransmits what
it receives.

• Ring is an active network. Termination is not

required.
Ring Topology
 Working of Ring Topology
• A free token is circulating on the ring. If any host
want to send data it has to first capture token which
is circulating in ring.

• Then writes data and recipient address on the token.

• The token send to the next host, who read the

address, if address in not own then pass to the next
host.

• This process is continue until the token received by

destination.
Ring Topology
 Working of Ring Topology

• Destination host send acknowledgement with the

help of token, and send to the source host.

• When acknowledge received by source and then

token is free. Token is again circulating in ring
network.
Ring Topology
 Advantages:
• Cable failures are easily found.
• Because every node is given equal access to the token.
• Data transfer speed is high.

 Disadvantages:
• Adding and removing nodes disrupts the network.
• It is difficult to troubleshoot a ring network.
• Failure of one node can affect the whole network.
• Cost of cable is more in ring network.
Mesh Topology
• The mesh topology has a link between each
device in the network.

• It is more difficult to install as the number of

devices increase. Mesh network are easy to
troubleshoot.

• Much of the bandwidth available in mesh

configuration is wasted.

• Most mesh topology networks are not true mesh.

• Rather they are hybrid mesh networks, which

contain some most important sites with multiple
links.
Mesh Topology
• Mesh topology is divided into two categories:
 Fully connected mesh topology
 Partially connected mesh topology
Mesh Topology
 Fully Mesh Topology
• In a full mesh topology, every computer in the
network has a connection to each of the other
computers in that network.

• The number of connections in this network can

be calculated using the following formula (n is
the number of computers in the network):
n*(n-1)/2

• A mesh topology is a network topology in which

all the network nodes are individually connected
to most of the other nodes. There is not a
concept of a central switch, hub or computer.

• Most mesh topology networks are not true mesh.

Mesh Topology
 Partially Mesh Topology
• In a partially connected mesh topology, at least
one/two of the computers in the network have
connections to multiple other computers in
that network.

• It is less expensive in compare to fully

connected mesh and also implement
redundancy in a network.

• In the event that one of the primary computers

or connections in the network fails, the rest of
the network continues to operate normally.

• Also there is no any central device like

hub/switch in partially connected mesh
topology.
Mesh Topology
 Advantages:
• A fault is diagnosed easily
• Failure link cannot stop data transmission from sender to receiver.
• Data transmission speed is too high.

 Disadvantages:
• Building and maintaining the topology is difficult and time consuming.
• Cost of very high in compare to other topologies.
• More difficult to install as the number of devices increase.
• Most of bandwidth are wasted.
Hybrid Topology
• A hybrid topology is a combination of
two or more topologies.

• Tree topology is also called hybrid

topology. Tree topology combination
of bus & star topology network.

• Tree topologies allow for the

expansion of an existing network.

• Mostly used when flexibility is

needed in existing network.

• Combination of ring & star are hybrid

topology but not tree topology.
Hybrid Topology
Hybrid Topology
 Advantages:
• Expansion of Network is possible and easy.
• Error detection and correction is easy.
• If one segment is damaged, other segments are not affected.
• Provides flexibility in network

 Disadvantages:
• Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling used.
• If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down.
• More difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.
OSI Model (Layered
Approach)
OSI Model
• OSI Model developed by ISO (International Organizations for Standardization)

• OSI stands for Open System Interconnection. There are seven layer in this model.

1. Physical Layer A - Application Layer

2. Data Link Layer P - Presentation Layer
3. Network Layer Please Do Not Tell S - Session Layer
4. Transport Layer Secret Password T - Transport Layer
5. Session Layer N - Network Layer
6. Presentation Layer
Anyone
D - Data Link Layer
7. Application Layer P - Physical Layer

• OSI model provides following services:

 Provides peer-to-peer logical services with layer physical implementation.
 Provides standards for communication between system.
 Define point of interconnection for the exchange of information between system.
 Each layer should perform a well defined function.
OSI Model
Application Layer
• The application layer is responsible for providing services to
the user.
• It provides user interfaces and other supporting services such
as e-mail, remote file access, file transfer, sharing database
etc...
• Protocols: HTTP, HTTPS, FTP, SMTP

 Functionality
• Network virtual terminal: It is a software version of physical
terminal that allows a user to log onto a remote host.
• File Transfer, Access and Management (FTAM): FTAM allows
user to access files and remote hosts, to retrieve files and to
manage files in remote computer.
• Mail Services: E-mail forwarding, storage are the services
under this category.
Presentation Layer
• This layer is concerned for data representation.
• The presentation layer deals with syntax and semantics of the
informing being exchanged.
• The presentation layer is responsible for translation,
compression, and encryption.

 Functionality:
• Translation: Different computers use different encoding
systems. The presentation layer maintains interoperability
between the two encoding system.
• Encryption: Encryption is transforming sender information to
non-readable format while transmission. Decryption is
reverse process.
• Compression: Compression is a technique of reducing number
of bits required to represent the data.
Session Layer
• The session layer is responsible for dialog control and
synchronization.

• This layer is network dialog controller – establishes,

maintains, synchronizes the interaction among computers.

 Functionality:
• Dialog Control: Communication between two process take
place in either half duplex or full-duplex mode. The session
layer manages dialog control for this communication.

• Synchronization: Session layer adds synchronization points

into stream of data.
Transport Layer
• The transport layer is responsible for the delivery of a
message from one process to another.
• Transport layer ensures that the whole message arrives intact
and in order with error control and process control.
• Data in the transport layer is known as segments.

 Functionality:
• Port addressing: Computer performs several operations
simultaneously process-to-process delivery means specific
process of one computer must be delivered to specific
process on other computer. The transport layer header
therefore include port address.
Transport Layer
 Functionality:
• Segmentation and reassembly: A message is divided into a
segments, each segment contains a sequence number
which enables transport layer to reassemble at
destination.

• Connection Control: Transport layer performs

connectionless or connection oriented services with the
destination machine.

• Flow Control: Transport layer performs end-to-end flow

control while data link layer performs it across the link.

• Error Control: Error control at this layer is performed on

end-to-end basis rather than across the link. The transport
layer ensures error free transmission.
Network Layer
• The network layer is responsible for the delivery of packets
from the source to destination.

• Network layer provides host to host delivery. Data in the

network layer is known as packets.

 Functionality:
• Logical Addressing: DLL implements physical addressing.
When a packet passes network boundary. An addressing
system is needed to distinguish source and destination,
network layer performs these function. The network layer
adds a header to the packet of upper layer includes the logical
addresses of sender and receiver.

• Routing: Network layer route or switch the packets to its final

destination in an internetwork.
Data Link Layer
• The data link layer is responsible for transmitting frames from
one node to the next.

• It transforms the physical layer to a reliable link making it an

error free link to upper layer.

• Data link layer is divided into two sub layers:

 LLC (Logical Link Control - Upper Layer)
 MAC (Media Access Control - Lower Layer)

• LLC is responsible for Flow control, Error Control, Access

Control.

• MAC is responsible for Physical addressing.

Data Link Layer
 Functionality:
• Framing: The frames received from network layer is divided into
manageable data units called frames.

• Physical Addressing: When frames are to be sent to different LANs, the

data link layer adds a header to the frame to define sender to receiver.

• Flow Control: When the rate of the data transmitted and rate of data
reception by receiver is not same, some data may be lost. So, this layer
manages data flow.

• Error Control: Data link layer incorporates reliability to the physical

layer by adding mechanism to detect and retransmit damaged or lost
frames.

• Access Control: When multiple devices are connected to same link, the
data link layer determines which device has control over link.
Physical Layer
• Physical layer is the lowest layer of the OSI model.

• The physical layer is responsible for transmit individual

bits from one hop (node) to the next.

• Carries the bit stream over a physical media.

• Physical layer co-ordinates the function required to

transmit a bit stream over a communication channel.

• It deals with electrical and mechanical specifications of

interface and transmission media.
Physical Layer
 Functionality:
• Representation of bits: Physical layer encodes the bit
stream into electrical or optical signal.

• Data rate: The physical layer defines the duration of a bit

which is called as data rate or transmission rate.

• Synchronization of bits: The transmission rate and

receiving rate must be same. This is done by synchronizing
clocks at sender and receiver.
Summary of OSI Reference Model
TCP/IP Model
TCP/IP Model
• The internet architecture, which is also sometimes called the TCP/IP architecture its
two main protocols.

• It stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol.

• TCP/IP is four layer system.

1. Application layer
2. Transport layer
3. Internet layer
4. Host to network layer (Link Layer/Network Interface)
TCP/IP Model
• Host to network interface
layer is called as physical
and data-link layer in OSI
model.

• Internet layer is called

network layer in OSI model.

• The application layer in

TCP/IP model is
combination of application,
presentation and session
layer of OSI model.
Application Layer
• Application layer includes all process and services that use transport layer to deliver
data.

• The most widely known application protocols are: TELNET, File Transfer Protocol
(FTP), Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) and Simple Network Management
Protocol (SNMP).

• TELENT is the Network Terminal Protocol, which provides remote login over the
network.

• FTP is used for interactive file transfer.

• SMTP delivers the electronic mail.

Transport Layer
• Application program sends data to the transport layer protocols TCP and UDP.

• An application is designed to choose either TCP or UDP based in the service it needs.

• Transport layer provides process to process delivery in the network.

• TCP is reliable and connection oriented protocol. It delivers data without error from one PC
to another PC.

• It converts incoming bytes into discrete message. At the receiver side TCP reassembles the
received data or massage into bytes format.

• TCP also handles flow control.

• UDP is a connection less protocol. Sometimes this type of protocol is used for fast delivery.
UDP cannot handle flow control or error checking.
Internet Layer
• The internet layer protocol (IP, ARP, ICMP) handle machine to machine communication.

• This layer protocols moves data from one host to another; even if the host are on different
networks.

• The primary protocol used to move data is the Internet protocol (IP), which provides the following
services.
 Addressing: Determining the route to deliver data to the destination host.
 Fragmentation: breaking the messages into pieces if an intervening network cannot handle a large
message.

• It provides connection less method of delivering data from one host to another.

• It does not guarantee delivery and does not provide sequencing of datagram.

• It attaches a header to datagram that includes source address and the destination address, both are
unique internet addresses.
Host to network Layer
• This layer is also called as link layer or network interface layer.

• This layer is same as physical and data link layer of OSI model.

• Host to Network layer cannot define any protocol.

• It is responsible for accepting and transmitting IP datagram.

• It transmits individual bits from one hop (node) to the next. Carries the bit stream over
a physical media.
Difference between OSI and TC/IP Model
Parameters OSI Model TCP/IP Model

No. of Layers There are 7 layers. There are 4 layers.

Acronyms OSI stands for open system TCP/IP stands for transmission control
interconnection. protocol/internet protocol
Developed by ISO Department of Defense (DoD)

Layer Separation OSI model has a separate TCP/IP does not have a separate
Presentation layer and Session layer. Presentation layer or Session layer.
Protocol Model was defined before Model defines after protocol were
implementation implementation takes place. implemented.
Model Concept based on three concept i.e. Service, It did not distinguish between service,
interface and protocol. interface and protocol.
Reliable delivery It gives guarantee of reliable delivery It does not give guarantee of reliable
of packet. delivery of packet.
Switching Techniques
 Switching Techniques
 For transmission of data beyond a local area,
communication is typically achieved by transmitting
data from source to destination through a network of
intermediate switching nodes.
 Purpose is to provide a switching facility that will move
the data from node to node until they reach their
destination.
 The nodes are connected to each other in some
topology by transmission links.
 Each station attaches to a node, and the collection of
nodes is referred to as a communication network.
 Two types of Switching Techniques:
1. Circuit Switching
2. Packet Switching
 Circuit Switching
 The telephone system as it historically developed was designed for voice and analog
signals.
 For voice signals, a relatively large amount of distortion is acceptable, since the human
error can understand voice even with distortion .
 For digital signals, these distortions may cause the receiver to misinterpret that signal,
it produce errors.
 Circuit Switching
 The interoffice lines are called trunks. Any phone line can connect one user to another
through the phone system, the user has a line assigned randomly.
 This is called the dial-up or switched network.
 Telephone networks are connection oriented because they require the setting up of
connection before the actual transfer of information can take place.
 An end-to-end path setup beginning of a session, dedicated to the application, and then
released at the end of session. This is called circuit switching.
Circuit Switching
 Advantages
 Fixed bandwidth and guaranteed capacity.
 Low variance end to end delay.

 Disadvantages
 Connection setup and termination generate extra traffic.
 User pay for circuit, even when not sending data.
 Other user cannot use circuit even if it is free.
 Packet Switching
 In packet switching, messages are broken into short blocks and interleaved with other
messages.
 Data is sent in individual packets. Each packet is forwarded from switch to switch,
eventually reaching its destination.
 Each switching node has a small amount of buffer space to temporarily hold packets.
 If the outgoing line is busy, the packet stay in queue until the line becomes available.
 Packet switching method uses two routing approaches:
 Datagram
 Virtual Circuit
 Packet Switching
 Datagram
 In datagram each packet is routed through
independently through the network.
 Header attached to each packet. It
provides all of the information required to
route the packet to its destination.
 While routing the packet, the destination
address in the header are examined to
determine the next hop in the path to the
destination.
 If the required line is busy then the packet
placed in the queue until the line becomes
free.
 Packet share the transmission line with
other packets.
Packet Switching
Packet Switching
 Advantages
 Each packet travel through different path.
 No need to establish connection process.
 If any route will be down during data transmission, but packet reached at destination any
way..
 Data transmission speed is too high.

 Disadvantages
 Sequencing process must be done at sender side.
 Packet may not arrive in order at destination in which they were sent.
 Re-sequencing process is required at destination.
 No dedicated path available, so there may be some delay during transmission.
 Packet Switching
 Virtual Circuit
 In virtual circuit packet switching a dedicated path must be established between a
source and a destination before data transmission process.
 Virtual circuit is also known as connection oriented network. It is similar to telephone
system.
 A route, which consists of a logical connection is first established between two users.
 The process is completed in three main phases:
 Establishment
 Data transfer
 Connection release
 Packet Switching
 Virtual Circuit
 Establishment: During this phase, the
two users not only agree to setup a
connection but also decide upon the
QoS. After establishment packets
transfer bidirectional.
 Data Transfer: During this performs
flow control and error control. The
error control service ensures correct
sequencing of packets. Flow control
service control faster sender and
slower receiver.
 Connection Release: When the station
wish to close down the virtual circuit,
one station can terminate the
connection with a clear request packet.
Packet Switching
Packet Switching
 Advantages
 Resource utilization more efficiently.
 Small amount of time required to establish or terminate circuit.
 It is more flexible.
 Small size packet reduce transmission delay.

 Disadvantages
 Complex protocol for packet switching.
 Algorithms are more complicated.
 Switching processor must be powerful.
 Packets may lost during switching.
 Circuit Switching
Circuit Switching Packet Switching
It is a connection oriented network switching technique. It is a connectionless network switching technique.
Dedicated path has to be established between the source There is no need to establish a dedicated path from the
and the destination before transfer of data commences. source to the destination.

Data packets are routed along the same dedicated path. Different data packets follow different paths.
Initially designed for voice transfer. Initially designed for data transfer.
It is not a store and forward transmission. It is store and forward transmission.
Data is processed and transmitted by the source station Data is processed and transmitted, not only by the
only. source station but at each switching station.
There are 3 phases in circuit switching In Packet switching directly data transfer takes place.
i) Connection Establishment
ii) Data Transfer
iii) Connection Released
Transmission Media
Transmission Media
• A transmission medium is a physical path between the transmitter and the receiver i.e.
it is the channel through which data is sent from one place to another.

• The main functionality of the transmission media is to carry the information in the
form of bits.

• The characteristics and quality of data transmission are determined by the

characteristics of medium and signal.

• Different transmission media have different properties such as bandwidth, delay, cost
and ease of installation and maintenance.

• Transmission media is divided into two types: wired media and wireless media. In
wired media, medium characteristics are more important whereas, in wireless media,
signal characteristics are more important.
Classification of Transmission Media
Physical path between transmitter and
Transmission
receiver
Media

Waves are guided wireless

Guided Unguided
along a solid transmission
Media Media
medium

Co-axial Cable Fibre Optics Twisted Pair Radio waves Micro waves Infrared
Guided Media
 Twisted Pair:
• Twisted pair is a physical media made up of a pair of cables twisted with each other.

• A twisted pair cable is cheap as compared to other transmission media.

• The frequency range for twisted pair cable is from 0 to 3.5KHz.

Guided Media
 Co-axial Cable:
• Coaxial cable is very commonly used in TV.

• The inner conductor is made up of copper, and the outer conductor is made up of
copper mesh. The middle core is made up of non-conductive cover

• The middle core is responsible for the data transferring whereas the copper mesh
prevents from the EMI(Electromagnetic interference).
Guided Media
 Fiber optic Cable:
• It uses electrical signals for
communication.

• Fiber optic is a cable that holds the optical

fibers coated in plastic that are used to
send the data by pulses of light.

• The plastic coating protects the optical

fibers from heat, cold, electromagnetic
interference from other types of wiring.

• Fiber optics provide faster data

transmission than copper wires.
 Guided Media
 Fiber optic Cable:
• Core: The optical fiber consists of a narrow strand
of glass or plastic known as a core. A core is a light
transmission area of the fiber. The more the area of
the core, the more light will be transmitted into the
fiber.

• Cladding: The concentric layer of glass is known as

cladding. The main functionality of the cladding is
to provide the lower refractive index at the core
interface as to cause the reflection within the core
so that the light waves are transmitted through the
fiber.

• Jacket: The protective coating consisting of plastic is

known as a jacket. The main purpose of a jacket is to
preserve the fiber strength, absorb shock and extra
fiber protection.
Unguided Media
• An unguided transmission transmits the electromagnetic waves without using any
physical medium. Therefore it is also known as wireless transmission.

• In unguided media, air is the media through which the electromagnetic energy can
flow easily.

• Unguided transmission is broadly classified into three categories: Radio wave, Micro
wave, Infrared.
Unguided Media
 Radio wave
• Radio waves are the electromagnetic waves that are transmitted in all the directions
of free space.

• Radio waves are omnidirectional, i.e., the signals are propagated in all the directions.

• In the case of radio waves, the sending and receiving antenna are not aligned, i.e., the
wave sent by the sending antenna can be received by any receiving antenna.

• An example of the radio wave is FM radio.

Unguided Media
 Micro wave
• Microwave is divided into two categories:
Unguided Media
 Terrestrial Micro wave
• Terrestrial Microwave transmission is a technology that transmits the focused beam
of a radio signal from one ground-based microwave transmission antenna to another.

• Microwaves are the electromagnetic waves having the frequency in the range from
1GHz to 1000 GHz.

• Microwaves are unidirectional as the sending and receiving antenna is to be aligned,

i.e., the waves sent by the sending antenna are narrowly focused.
Unguided Media
 Satellite Micro wave
• A satellite is a physical object that revolves around the earth at a known height.

• Satellite communication is more reliable nowadays as it offers more flexibility than

cable and fiber optic systems.

• We can communicate with any point on the globe by using satellite communication.

• How Does Satellite work?

• The satellite accepts the signal that is transmitted from the earth station, and it
amplifies the signal. The amplified signal is retransmitted to another earth station.
Unguided Media
 Infrared
• An infrared transmission is a wireless technology used for communication over short
ranges.

• The frequency of the infrared in the range from 300 GHz to 400 THz.

• It is used for short-range communication such as data transfer between two cell
phones, TV remote operation, data transfer between a computer and cell phone
resides in the same closed area.

• It supports high bandwidth, and hence the data rate will be very high.

• Infrared waves cannot penetrate the walls.

• Infrared communication is unreliable outside the building because the sun rays will
interfere with the infrared waves.
General Frequency Ranges (Understanding Purpose)

VLF Very Low Frequency VHF Very High Frequency Frequency and wavelength are
inversely proportional to each
LF Low Frequency UHF Ultra High Frequency
other.
MF Medium Frequency SHF Super High Frequency
HF High Frequency EHF Extremely High Frequency
 a n k
Th u
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