Math 421- Advanced Linear Algebra

CHAPTER 2: Vector Spaces

- DEFINITION AND EXAMPLES OF

VECTOR SPACES,
- SUBSPACES, AND
- SPAN

HASSAN S. GANDAMRA
Presenter
 4.1 The vector Space Rn
Definition 1.
Let (u1 , u2 , ..., un ) be a sequence of n real numbers. The set of all
such sequences is called n-space (or n-dimensional. space) and
is denoted Rn.
u1 is the first component of (u1 , u2 , ..., un ) .
u2 is the second component and so on.
Example 1
• R2 is the collection of all sets of two ordered real numbers.
For example, (0, 0) , (1, 2) and (-2, -3) are elements of R2.
• R3 is the collection of all sets of three ordered real numbers.
For example, (0,0, 0) and (-1,3, 4) are elements of R3.

Ch04_2
Definition 2.
Let u  (u1 , u2 , ..., un ) and v  (v1 , v2 , ..., vn ) be two elements of Rn.
We say that u and v are equal if u1 = v1, …, un = vn.
Thus two elements of Rn are equal if their corresponding
components are equal.

Definition 3.
Let u  (u1 , u2 , ..., un ) and v  (v1 , v2 , ..., vn ) be elements of Rn
and let c be a scalar. Addition and scalar multiplication are
performed as follows:
Addition: u  v  (u1  v1 , ..., un  vn )
cu  (cu1 , ..., cun )
Scalar multiplication :
Ch04_3
► The set Rn with operations of componentwise addition and
scalar multiplication is an example of a vector space, and its
elements are called vectors.
We shall henceforth interpret Rn to be a vector space.
(We say that Rn is closed under addition and scalar multiplication).
► In general, if u and v are vectors in the same vector space, then u + v is
the diagonal of the parallelogram defined by u and v.

Figure 4.1

Ch04_4
 Example 2
Let u = ( –1, 4, 3) and v = ( –2, –3, 1) be elements of R3.
Find u + v and 3u.
Solution: u + v = (–1, 4, 3) + (– 2, –3, 1) = (-3 ,1 ,4)
3u = 3 (–1, 4, 3) = (-3 ,12 ,9)
Example 3

In R2 , consider the two elements

(4, 1) and (2, 3).
Find their sum and give a geometrical
interpretation of this sum.
we get (4, 1) + (2, 3) = (6, 4).
The vector (6, 4), the sum, is the
diagonal of the parallelogram.
Figure 4.2
Ch04_5
 Example 4
Consider the scalar multiple of the vector (3, 2) by 2, we get
2(3, 2) = (6, 4)
Observe in Figure 4.3 that (6, 4) is a vector in the same direction
as (3, 2), and 2 times it in length.

Figure 4.3
Ch04_6
 Zero Vector
The vector (0, 0, …, 0), having n zero components, is called the
zero vector of Rn and is denoted 0.

Negative Vector
The vector (–1)u is writing –u and is called the negative of u.
It is a vector having the same length (or magnitude) as u, but
lies in the opposite direction to u.
u

u
Subtraction
Subtraction is performed on element of Rn by subtracting
corresponding components.

Ch04_7
 Theorem 4.1
Let u, v, and w be vectors in Rn and let c and d be scalars.
(a) u + v = v + u
(b) u + (v + w) = (u + v) + w
(c) u + 0 = 0 + u = u
(d) u + (–u) = 0
(e) c(u + v) = cu + cv
(f) (c + d)u = cu + du
(g) c(du) = (cd)u
(h) 1u = u
Figure 4.4
Commutativity of vector addition
u+v=v+u
Ch04_8
 Example 5
Let u = (2, 5, –3), v = ( –4, 1, 9), w = (4, 0, 2) in the vector space
R3.
Determine the vector 2u – 3v + w.
Solution
2u  3v  w  2(2, 5,  3)  3(4, 1, 9)  (4, 0, 2)
 (4, 10,  6)  (12, 3, 27)  (4, 0, 2)
 (4  12  4, 10  3  0,  6  27  2)
 (20, 7,  31)

Ch04_9
 Column Vectors
Row vector: u  (u1 , u2 , ..., un )
 u1 
Column vector:  
 
un 

We defined addition and scalar multiplication of column vectors

in Rn in a componentwise manner:
 u1   v1   u1  v1   u1   cu1 
          and c     
un  vn  un  vn  un  cun 
         

Ch04_10
 4.2 General Vector Spaces
Our aim in this section will be to focus on the algebraic
properties of Rn.

Definition
A vector space is a set V of elements called vectors, having
operations of addition and scalar multiplication defined on it
that satisfy the following conditions.
Let u, v, and w be arbitrary elements of V, and c and d are scalars.
• Closure Axioms
1. The sum u + v exists and is an element of V. (V is closed
under addition.)
2. cu is an element of V. (V is closed under scalar
multiplication.)
Ch04_11
 Example 1
(1) V={ …, 3, 1, 1, 3, 5, 7, …}
V is not closed under addition because 1+3=4  V.

(2) Z={ …, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, …}

Z is closed under addition because
for any a, b  Z, a + b Z.
Z is not closed under scalar multiplication because
½ is a scalar, for any odd a  Z, (½)a  Z.

Ch04_12
 Definition of Vector Space (continued)
• Addition Axioms
3. u + v = v + u (commutative property)
4. u + (v + w) = (u + v) + w (associative property)
5. There exists an element of V, called the zero vector, denoted
0, such that u + 0 = u.
6. For every element u of V there exists an element called the
negative of u, denoted u, such that u + (u) = 0.
• Scalar Multiplication Axioms
7. c(u + v) = cu + cv
8. (c + d)u = cu + du
9. c(du) = (cd)u
10. 1u = u

Ch04_13
 A Vector Space in R3

Let W  { a (1, 0, 1) | a  R }. Prove that W is a vector space.

Proof
Let u  a (1,0,1) and v  b(1,0,1) W , for some a, bR.
Axiom 1: u  v  a(1,0,1)  b(1,0,1)  (a  b)(1,0,1)
u + v W. Thus W is closed under addition.
Axiom 2: cu  ca(1,0,1)W.
Thus W is closed under scalar multiplication.
Axiom 5: Let 0 = (0, 0, 0) = 0(1,0,1),
then 0 W and 0+u = u+0 = u for any u  W.
Axiom 6: For any u = a(1,0,1)  W. Let u = a(1,0,1),
then u W and (u)+u = 0.
Axiom 3,4 and 7~10: trivial Ch04_14
 Vector Spaces of Matrices (Mmn)
 p q
Let M 22 {  | p, q, r , s  R }. Prove that M22 is a vector space.
r s

Proof a b  e f
Let u    and v     M 22 .
c d  g h
Axiom 1:
a b e f  a  e b f 
uv    
 c d   g h  c  g d  h 

u + v is a 2  2 matrix. Thus M22 is closed under addition.

► Question: Prove Axiom 2 and Axiom 7 .
Axiom 3 and 4:
From our previous discussions we know that 2  2 matrices are
commutative and associative under addition (Theorem 2.2).
Ch04_15
Axiom 5:
 0 0
The 2  2 zero matrix is 0  0 0  , since
 
u0  a b  0 0   a b 
  u
 c d  0 0  c d 
Axiom 6:
 a b   a  b
If u  , then  u  , since
 c d    c  d 
a b    a  b   a  a b  b  0 0 
u  ( u )      0
 c d    c  d   c  c d  d  0 0 

In general: The set of m  n matrices, Mmn, is a vector space.

p q
Is the set W  {   | p ,q ,r ,s  0} a vector space?
r s
Ch04_16
 Vector Spaces of Functions
Prove that F = { f | f: R R } is a vector space.

Let f, g  F, c  R. For example: f: R R, f(x)=2x,

Axiom 1: g: R R, g(x)=x2+1.
f + g is defined by (f + g)(x) = f(x) + g(x).
 f + g : R R
 f + g  F. Thus F is closed under addition.

Axiom 2:
cf is defined by (cf)(x) = c f(x).
 cf : R R
 cf  F. Thus F is closed under scalar multiplication.

Ch04_17
 Vector Spaces of Functions (continued)
Axiom 5:
Let 0 be the function such that 0(x) = 0 for every xR.
0 is called the zero function.
We get (f + 0)(x) = f(x) + 0(x) = f(x) + 0 = f(x) for every xR.
Thus f + 0 = f. (0 is the zero vector.)
Axiom 6:
Let the function –f defined by (f )(x) = f (x).
[ f  ( f )]( x)  f ( x)  ( f )( x)
 f ( x)  [ f ( x)]
0
 0( x )
Thus [f + (f )] = 0, f is the negative of f.
Is the set F ={ f | f(x)=ax2+bx+c for some a,b,c R} a vector space? Ch04_18
 Theorem 4.4 (useful properties)
Let V be a vector space, v a vector in V, 0 the zero vector of V,
c a scalar, and 0 the zero scalar. Then
(a) 0v = 0
(b) c0 = 0
(c) (1)v = v
(d) If cv = 0, then either c = 0 or v = 0.

Ch04_19
Homework

Exercise set 4.1, pages 206-207:

5, 7, 11, 13, 15.

Ch04_20
4.3 Subspaces

Figure 4.9 Ch04_21

Note:
► In general, a subset of a vector space may or may not satisfy
the closure axioms.
► However, any subset that is closed under both of these
operations satisfies all the other vector space properties.

Definition
Let V be a vector space and U be a nonempty subset of V.
U is said to be a subspace of V if it is closed under addition
and under scalar multiplication.

Ch04_22
 Example 1
Let U be the subset of R3 consisting of all vectors of the form
(a, 0, 0) (with zeros as second and third components and aR ),
i.e., U = {(a, 0, 0)  R3 }.
Show that U is a subspace of R3.
Solution
Let (a, 0, 0), (b, 0, 0)  U, and let k R.
We get
(a, 0, 0) + (b, 0, 0) = (a + b, 0, 0)  U
k(a, 0, 0) = (k a, 0, 0)  U
The sum and scalar product are in U.
Thus U is a subspace of R3. #

Geometrically, U is the set of vectors that lie on the x-axis.

Ch04_23
 Example 2
Let V be the set of vectors of of R3 of the form (a, a2, b), namely
V = {(a, a2, b)  R3 }.
Show that V is not a subspace of R3.

Solution
Let (a, a2, b), (c, c2, d)  V.
(a, a2, b) + (c, c2, d) = (a+ c, a2 + c2, b + d)
 (a + c, (a + c)2, b + d) ,
since a2 + c2  (a + c)2 .
Thus (a, a2, b) + (c, c2, d)  V.
V is not closed under addition.
V is not a subspace.

Ch04_24
 Example 3
Prove that the set W of 2  2 diagonal matrices is a subspace of
the vector space M22 of 2  2 matrices.
Solution
(+) Let u  a 0 and v   p 0  W.
 0 b   0 q 
 a 0  p 0   a  p 0 
We get u  v   0 b    0 q    0 b  q 
    
 u + v  W.
 W is closed under addition.

() Let c R. We get cu  c 

a 0 ca 0 

 0 b   0 cb
 cu  W.
 W is closed under scalar multiplication.
 W is a subspace of M22.
Ch04_25
 The vector space of polynomials (Pn)
5. Let Pn denoted the set of real polynomial functions of
Example 4.
degree  n. Prove that Pn is a vector space if addition and scalar
multiplication are defined on polynomials in a pointwise manner.
Solution
Let f and g  Pn, where
f ( x)  an x n  an 1 x n 1  ...  a1 x  a0 and
g ( x)  bn x n  bn 1 x n 1  ...  b1 x  b0
►(+) ( f  g )( x)
 f ( x)  g ( x)
 [an x n  an 1 x n 1  ...  a1 x  a0 ]  [bn x n  bn 1 x n 1  ...  b1 x  b0 ]
 (an  bn ) x n  (an 1  bn 1 ) x n 1  ...  (a1  b1 ) x  (a0  b0 )
(f + g)(x) is a polynomial of degree  n.
Thus f + g  Pn.
Then Pn is closed under addition. Ch04_26
►() Let c R,(cf )( x)  c[ f ( x)]
 c[an x n  an 1 x n 1  ...  a1 x  a0 ]
 can x n  can 1 x n 1  ...  ca1 x  ca0

(cf )(x) is a polynomial of degree  n.

So cf  Pn.
Then Pn is closed under scalar multiplication.

In conclusion : By (+) and (), Pn is a subspace of the vector

space F of functions.
Therefore Pn is itself a vector space.

Ch04_27
 Theorem 4.5 (Very important condition)
Let U be a subspace of a vector space V.
U contains the zero vector of V.

Note. Let 0 be the zero vector of V.

If 0 U  U is not a subspace of V.
If 0 U  (+)() hold  U is a subspace of V.
(+)() failed U is not a subspace of V.
Caution. This condition is necessary but not sufficient.
(See, for instance, Example 2 above and Example 5 below)

Ch04_28
 Example 5
Let W be the set of vectors of the form (a, a, a+2).
Show that W is not a subspace of R3.
Solution
If (a, a, a+2) = (0, 0, 0), then a = 0 and a + 2 = 0 .
This system is inconsistent it has no solution.
Thus (0, 0, 0)  W. (The necessary condition does not hold)
 W is not a subspace of R3.

Ch04_29
 4.4 Linear Combinations of Vectors
W={(a, a, b) | a,b R}  R3

(a, a, b) = a (1,1,0) + b (0,0,1)

W is generated by (1,1,0) and (0,0,1).
e.g., (2, 2, 3) = 2 (1,1,0) + 3 (0,0,1)
(1, 1, 7) = 1 (1,1,0) + 7 (0,0,1).

Definition
Let v1, v2, …, vm be vectors in a vector space V.
We say that v, a vector of V, is a linear combination of
v1, v2, …, vm , if there exist scalars c1, c2, …, cm such that
v can be written v = c1v1 + c2v2 + … + cmvm .

Ch04_30
 Example 1
The vector (5, 4, 2) is a linear combination of the vectors
(1, 2, 0), (3, 1, 4), and (1, 0, 3), since it can be written
(5, 4, 2) = (1, 2, 0) + 2(3, 1, 4) – 2(1, 0, 3)

Ch04_31
 Example 2
Determine whether or not the vector (1, 1, 5) is a linear
combination of the vectors (1, 2, 3), (0, 1, 4), and (2, 3, 6).
Solution
Suppose c1 (1, 2, 3)  c2 (0, 1, 4)  c3 (2, 3, 6)  (1, 1, 5)
(c1 , 2c1 , 3c1 )  (0, c2 , 4c2 )  (2c3 , 3c3 , 6c3 )  (1, 1, 5)
(c1  2c3 , 2c1  c2  3c3 , 3c1  4c2  6c3 )  (1, 1, 5)
 c1  2c3  1

  2c1  c2  3c3  1  c1  1, c2  2, c3  1
 3c  4c  6c  5
 1 2 3

Thus (1, 1, 5) is a linear combination of (1, 2, 3), (0, 1, 4),

(1, 1, 5)  (1, 2, 3)  2(0, 1, 4)  1(2, 3, 6).
and (2, 3, 6), where

Ch04_32
 Example 3
Express the vector (4, 5, 5) as a linear combination of the vectors
(1, 2, 3), (1, 1, 4), and (3, 3, 2).
Solution
Suppose c1 (1, 2, 3)  c2 (1, 1, 4)  c3 (3, 3, 2)  (4, 5, 5)

(c1 , 2c1 , 3c1 )  (c2 , c2 , 4c2 )  (3c3 , 3c3 , 2c3 )  (4, 5, 5)

(c1  c2  3c3 , 2c1  c2  3c3 , 3c1  4c2  2c3 )  (4, 5, 5)
 c1  c2  3c3  4

 2c1  c2  3c3  5  c1  2r  3, c2  r  1, c3  r
3c  4c  2c  5
 1 2 3
Thus (4, 5, 5) can be expressed in many ways as a linear
combination of (1, 2, 3), (1, 1, 4), and (3, 3, 2):
(4, 5, 5)  (2r  3)(1, 2, 3)  (r  1)(1, 1, 4)  r (2, 3, 6)
Ch04_33
 Example 4
Show that the vector (3, 4, 6) cannot be expressed as a linear
combination of the vectors (1, 2, 3), (1, 1, 2), and (1, 4, 5).
Solution
Suppose
c1 (1, 2, 3)  c2 (1,  1,  2)  c3 (1, 4, 5)  (3,  4,  6)

 c1  c2  c3  3

 2c1  c2  4c3  4
3c  2c  5c   6
 1 2 3

This system has no solution.

Thus (3, 4, 6) is not a linear combination of the vectors
(1, 2, 3), (1, 1, 2), and (1, 4, 5).

Ch04_34
 Example 5
 1 7
Determine whether the matrix   is a linear combination
 8  1
1 0 2  3
of the matrices  , and 
0 1
, in the vector space
2 1 0 2  2 0
M22 of 2  2 matrices.
Solution
Suppose  1 0  2  3  0 1  1 7 
c1 c c 
2 1 2 0 2  3 2 0  8  1

Then
 c1  2c2  3c2  c3   1 7 
2c  2c  
 1 3 c1  2c2   8  1

Ch04_35
  c1  2c2  1

 3c2  c3  7

 2c1  2c3  8
 c1  2c2  1
This system has the unique solution c1 = 3, c2 = 2, c3 = 1.
Therefore
 1 7   31 0  2 2  3  0 1
 8  1 2 1 0 2  2 0

Ch04_36
 Example 6
Determine whether the function f ( x )  x 2  10 x  7 is a linear
combination of the functions g ( x )  x 2  3 x  1 and
h ( x )  2 x 2  x  4.
Solution
Suppose c1 g  c2 h  f .
Then
c1 ( x 2  3 x  1)  c2 (2 x 2  x  4)  x 2  10 x  7

(c1  2c2 ) x 2  (3c1  c2 ) x  c1  4c2  x 2  10 x  7

 c1  2c2  1

  3c1  c2  10  c1  3, c2  1  f  3 g  h.
 c  4c  7
 1 2
Ch04_37
 Spanning Sets
Definition
The vectors v1, v2, …, vm are said to span a vector space if every
vector in the space can be expressed as a linear combination of
these vectors.
In this case {v1, v2, …, vm} is called a spanning set.

Ch04_38
 Example 7
Show that the vectors (1, 2, 0), (0, 1, 1), and (1, 1, 2) span R3.

Solution
Let (x, y, z) be an arbitrary element of R3.
Suppose ( x, y, z )  c1 (1, 2, 0)  c2 (0, 1,  1)  c3 (1, 1, 2)

 ( x, y, z )  (c1  c3 , 2c1  c2  c3 ,  c2  2c3 )

 c1  c3  x c1  3 x  y  z
 
 2c1  c2  c3  y  c2  4 x  2 y  z
 c  2 x  y  z
  c 2  2c 3  z  3

 ( x, y, z )  (3 x  y  z )(1,2,0)  (4 x  2 y  z )(0, 1,  1)  (2 x  y  z )(1, 1, 2)

The vectors (1, 2, 0), (0, 1, 1), and (1, 1, 2) span R3.
Ch04_39
 Example 8
Show that the following matrices span the vector space M22 of
2  2 matrices. 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
Solution
 a b
 c d   M22 (an arbitrary element).
Let

We can express this matrix as follows:

 a b   a 1 0   b  0 1   c  0 0   d  0 0 
 c d  0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
proving the result.

Ch04_40
 Theorem 4.6
Let v1, …, vm be vectors in a vector space V. Let U be the set
consisting of all linear combinations of v1, …, vm .
Then U is a subspace of V spanned by the vectors v1, …, vm .
U is said to be the vector space generated by v1, …, vm .
Proof

(+) Let u1 = a1v1 + … + amvm and u2 = b1v1 + … + bmvm  U.

Then u1 + u2 = (a1v1 + … + amvm) + (b1v1 + … + bmvm)
= (a1 + b1) v1 + … + (am + bm) vm
 u1 + u2 is a linear combination of v1, …, vm .
 u1 + u2  U.
 U is closed under vector addition.

Ch04_41
()Let c R. Then
cu1 = c(a1v1 + … + amvm)
= ca1v1 + … + camvm
 cu1 is a linear combination of v1, …, vm .
 cu1  U.
 U is closed under scalar multiplication.
Thus U is a subspace of V.
By the definition of U, every vector in U can be written as a
linear combination of v1, …, vm .
Thus v1, …, vm span U.

Ch04_42
 Example 9
Consider the vector space R3.
The vectors (1, 5, 3) and (2, 3, 4) are in R3.
Let U be the subset of R3 consisting of all vectors of the form
c1(1, 5, 3) + c2(2, 3, 4)
Then U is a subspace of R3 spanned by (1, 5, 3) and (2, 3, 4).
The following are examples of some of the vectors in U, obtained
by given c1 and c2 various values.
c1  1, c2  0; vector (1, 5, 3)
c1  0, c2  1; vector (2,  3, 4)
c1  0, c2  0; vector (0, 0, 0)
c1  2, c2  3; vector (4, 1, 18)
We can visualize U. U is made up of all vectors in the plane
defined by the vectors (1, 5, 3) and (2, 3, 4).
Ch04_43
Figure 4.10
Ch04_44
 We can generalize this result.
Let v1 and v2 be vectors in the
space R3.

The subspace U generated by

v1 and v2 is the set of all
vectors of the form c1v1 +
c2v2.

If v1 and v2 are not colinear,

then U is the plane defined by Figure 4.11
v1 and v2 .

Ch04_45
 If v1 and v2 are vectors in R3
that are not colinear, then we
can visualize U as a plane in
three dimensions.

k1v1 and k2v2 will be vectors

on the same lines as v1 and v2.

Figure 4.12

Ch04_46
 Example 10
Let U be the subspace of R3 generated by the vectors (1, 2, 0) and
(3, 1, 2). Let V be the subspace of R3 generated by the vectors
(1, 5, 2) and (4, 1, 2). Show that U = V.
Solution
(U V) Let u be a vector in U. Let us show that u is in V.
Since u is in U, there exist scalars a and b such that
u  a (1, 2, 0)  b(3, 1, 2)  (a  3b, 2a  b, 2b)
Let us see if we can write u as a linear combination of (1, 5, 2)
and (4, 1, 2).
u  p (1, 5, 2)  q (4, 1, - 2)  ( p  4q, 5 p  q, 2 p  2q )
Such p and q would have to satisfy
 p  4q  a  3b
5 p  q  2a  b
2 p  2q  2b
Ch04_47
 ab a  2b
This system of equations has unique solution p  ,q  .
Thus u can be written 3 3
ab a  2b
u (1, 5, 2)  (4, 1,  2)
3 3
Therefore, u is a vector in V.

(V U) Let v be a vector in V. Let us show that v is in U.

Since v is in V, there exist scalars c and d such that
v  c(1, 5, 2)  d (4 , 1,  2)
It can be shown that
v  (2c  d )(1, 2, 0)  (c  d )(3, 1, 2)
Therefore, v is a vector in U and hence U=V.

Ch04_48
Figure 4.13

Ch04_49
 Example 11
Let U be the vector space generated by the functions f(x) = x + 1
and g(x) = 2x2 – 2x + 3. Show that the function h(x) = 6x2–10x+5
lies in U.
Solution
h will be in the space generated by f and g if there exist scalars a
and b such that
a(x + 1) + b(2x2 – 2x + 3) = 6x2 – 10x + 5
This given
2bx2 + (a – 2b)x + a + 3b = 6x2 – 10x + 5
2b = 6
 a – 2b = – 10
a + 3b = 5
This system has the unique solution a = – 4, b = 3.
Thus – 4(x + 1) + 3(2x2 – 2x + 3) = 6x2 – 10x + 5
Ch04_50
THE END (To be continue by Sir Baro)

THANK YOU
AND
GOD SPEED!!!

Ch04_51
Math 421- Advanced Linear Algebra

CHAPTER 2: Vector Spaces

- LINEAR INDEPENDENCE
- BASIS, AND
- DIMENSION

SA-ADON M. BARO
Presenter
 4.6 Linear Dependence and Independence

The concepts of dependence and independence of vectors are

useful tools in constructing “efficient” spanning sets for
vector
spaces – sets in which there are no redundant vectors.

Definition
(a) The set of vectors { v1, …, vm } in a vector space V is said to
be linearly dependent if there exist scalars c1, …, cm, not all
zero, such that c1v1 + … + cmvm = 0
(b) The set of vectors { v1, …, vm } is linearly independent if
c1v1 + … + cmvm = 0 can only be satisfied when
c1 = 0, …, cm = 0.
Ch04_53
 Example 1
Show that the set {(1, 2, 3), (2, 1, 1), (8, 6, 10)} is linearly
dependent in R3.
Solution
Suppose c1 (1, 2, 3)  c2 (2, 1, 1)  c3 (8, 6, 10)  0

 (c1 , 2c1 , 3c1 )  (2c2 , c2 , c2 )  (8c3 , 6c3 , 10c3 )  0

(c1  2c2  8c3 , 2c1  c2  6c3 , 3c1  c2  10c3 )  0

 c1  2c2  8c3  0
 c1 = 4
  2c1  c2  6c3  0 
c2 = 2
3c  c  10c  0
 1 2 3 c3 = 1

Thus 4(1, 2, 3)  2( 2, 1, 1)  (8, 6, 10)  0

The set of vectors is linearly dependent.
Ch04_54
 Example 2
Show that the set {(3, 2, 2), (3, 1, 4), (1, 0, 5)} is linearly
independent in R3.
Solution
Suppose c1 (3,  2, 2)  c2 (3,  1, 4)  c3 (1, 0, 5)  0

 (3c1 ,  2c1 , 2c1 )  (3c2 ,  c2 , 4c2 )  (c3 , 0, 5c3 )  0

(3c1  3c2  c3 ,  2c1  c2 , 2c1  4c2  5c3 )  0

  3c1  3c2  c3  0

  2c1  c2  0
2c  4c  5c  0
 1 2 3

This system has the unique solution c1 = 0, c2 = 0, and c3 = 0.

Thus the set is linearly independent.
Ch04_55
 Example 3
Consider the functions f(x) = x2 + 1, g(x) = 3x – 1, h(x) = – 4x + 1
of the vector space P2 of polynomials of degree  2.
Show that the set of functions { f, g, h } is linearly independent.
Solution
Suppose
c 1f + c 2g + c 3h = 0
Since for any real number x,
c1 ( x 2  1)  c2 (3 x  1)  c3 (4 x  1)  0

Consider three convenient values of x. We get

x  0 : c1  c2  c3  0
x  1 : 2c1  2c2  3c3  0
x  1 : 2c1  4c2  5c3  0

Ch04_56
It can be shown that this system of three equations has the unique
solution
c1 = 0, c2 = 0, c3 = 0
Thus c1f + c2g + c3h = 0 implies that c1 = 0, c2 = 0, c3 = 0.
The set { f, g, h } is linearly independent.

Ch04_57
 Theorem 4.7
A set consisting of two or more vectors in a vector space is
linearly dependent if and only if it is possible to express one
of the vectors as a linearly combination of the other vectors.

Example 4
The set of vectors {v1=(1, 2, 1) , v2 =(-1, -1, 0) , v3 = (0, 1,1)}
is linearly dependent, since v3 = v1 + v2 .
Thus, v3 is a linear combination of v1 and v2.

Ch04_58
 Linear Dependence of {v1, v2}

{v1, v2} linearly dependent; {v1, v2} linearly independent;

vectors lie on a line vectors do not lie on a line

Figure 4.14 Linear dependence and independence of {v1, v2} in R3.

Ch04_59
 Linear Dependence of {v1, v2, v3}

{v1, v2, v3} linearly dependent; {v1, v2, v3} linearly independent;
vectors lie in a plane vectors do not lie in a plane

Figure 4.15 Linear dependence and independence of {v1, v2, v3} in R3.

Ch04_60
 Theorem 4.8
Let V be a vector space. Any set of vectors in V that contains the
zero is linearly dependent.
Proof
Consider the set { 0, v2, …, vm }, which contains the zero vectors.
Let us examine the identity
c1 0  c2 v 2    cm v m  0
We see that the identity is true for c1 = 1, c2 = 0, …, cm = 0 (not
all zero).
Thus the set of vectors is linearly dependent, proving the
theorem.

Ch04_61
 Theorem 4.9
Let the set {v1, …, vm} be linearly dependent in a vector space V.
Any set of vectors in V that contains these vectors will also be
linearly dependent.

Example 5
The set of vectors
{v1=(1, 2, 1) , v2 =(-1, -1, 0) , v3 = (0, 1,1) , v4 =( 1, 1, 1) }
is linearly dependent, since it contains the vectors v1 , v2 , v3
which are linearly dependent.

Ch04_62
 4.7 Bases and Dimension
Definition
A finite set of vectors {v1, …, vm} is called a basis for a vector
space V if the set spans V and is linearly independent.

Standard Basis
The set of n vectors
{(1, 0, …, 0), (0, 1, …, 0), …, (0, …, 1)}
is a basis for Rn. This basis is called the standard basis for Rn.
How to prove it?

Ch04_63
 Example 1
Show that the set {(1, 0, 1), (1, 1, 1), (1, 2, 4)} is a basis for R3.
Solution
(span)
Let (x1, x2, x3) be an arbitrary element of R3.
Suppose
( x1 , x2 , x3 )  a1 (1, 0,  1)  a2 (1, 1, 1)  a3 (1, 2, 4)

 a1  a2  a3  x1  a1  2 x1  3x2  x3
a2  2a3  x2 a2  2 x1  5 x2  2 x3
 a1  a2  4a3  x3 a3  x1  2 x2  x3
Thus the set spans the space.

Ch04_64
(linearly independent)
Consider the identity
b1 (1, 0,  1)  b2 (1, 1, 1)  b3 (1, 2, 4)  (0, 0, 0)
The identity leads to the system of equations
b1  b2  b3  0
b2  2b3  0
 b1  b2  4b3  0
 b1 = 0, b2 = 0, and b3 = 0 is the unique solution.
Thus the set is linearly independent.
 {(1, 0, 1), (1, 1, 1), (1, 2, 4)} spans R3 and is linearly
independent.
 It forms a basis for R3.

Ch04_65
 Example 2
Show that { f, g, h }, where f(x) = x2 + 1, g(x) = 3x – 1, and h(x)
= –4x + 1 is a basis for P2.
Solution
(linearly independent) see Example 3 of the previous section.
(span). Let p be an arbitrary function in P2.
p is thus a polynomial of the form
p ( x)  bx 2  cx  d
Suppose p ( x)  a1 f ( x)  a2 g ( x)  a3 h( x)
for some scalars a1, a2, a3.
This gives
bx 2  cx  d  a1 ( x 2  1)  a2 (3 x  1)  a3 (4 x  1)
 a1 x 2  (3a2  4a3 ) x  (a1  a2  a3 )
Ch04_66
 a1  b a1  b
 3a2  4a3  c  a2  4b  4d  c
a1  a2  a3  d a3  3b  3d  c

Thus the polynomial p can be expressed

p ( x)  a1 f ( x)  a2 g ( x)  a3 h( x)
The functions f, g, and h span P2.
They form a basis for P2.

Ch04_67
 Theorem 4.10
Let {v1, …, vn } be a basis for a vector space V.
If {w1, …, wm} is a set of more than n vectors in V, then this set is
linearly dependent.
Proof
Suppose
c1w1    cm w m  0 (1)
We will show that values of c1, …, cm are not all zero.
The set {v1, …, vn} is a basis for V. Thus each of the vectors w1,
…, wm can be expressed as a linear combination of v1, …, vn. Let
w1  a11 v1  a12 v 2    a1n v n

w m  am1 v1  am 2 v 2    amn v n

Ch04_68
Substituting for w1, …, wm into Equation (1) we get
c1 (a11 v1  a12 v 2    a1n v n )    cm (am1 v1  am 2 v 2    amn v n )  0
Rearranging, we get
(c1a11  c2 a21    cm am1 ) v1    (c1a1n  c2 a2 n    cm amn ) v n  0
Since v1, …, vn are linear independent,
a11c1  a21c2    am1cm  0

a1n c1  a2 n c2    amn cm  0
Since m > n, there are many solutions in this system.
Thus the set {w1, …, wm} is linearly dependent.

Ch04_69
 Theorem 4.11
Any two bases for a vector space V consist of the same number
of vectors.
Proof
Let {v1, …, vn} and {w1, …, wm} be two bases for V.
By Theorem 4.10,
m  n and n  m
Thus n = m.

Ch04_70
Definition
If a vector space V has a basis consisting of n vectors, then the
dimension of V is said to be n. We write dim(V) for the
dimension of V.

• V is finite dimensional if such a finite basis exists.

• V is infinite dimensional otherwise.

Ch04_71
 Example 3
Consider the set {{1, 2, 3), (-2, 4, 1)} of vectors in R3.
These vectors generate a subspace V of R3 consisting of all
vectors of the form
v  c1 (1, 2, 3)  c2 (2, 4, 1)
The vectors (1, 2, 3) and (-2, 4, 1) span this subspace.
Furthermore, since the second vector is not a scalar multiple
of the first vector, the vectors are linearly independent.
Therefore {{1, 2, 3), (-2, 4, 1)} is a basis for V.
Thus dim(V) = 2.
We know that V is, in fact, a plane through the origin.

Ch04_72
 Theorem 4.12
(a) The origin is a subspace of R3. The dimension of this
subspace is defined to be zero.
(b) The one-dimensional subspaces of R3 are lines through the
origin.
(c) The two-dimensional subspaces of R3 are planes through the
origin.

Figure 4.16 One and two-dimensional subspaces of R3 Ch04_73

Proof
(a) Let V be the set {(0, 0, 0)}, consisting of a single elements,
the zero vector of R3. Let c be the arbitrary scalar. Since
(0, 0, 0) + (0, 0, 0) = (0, 0, 0) and c(0, 0, 0) = (0, 0, 0)
V is closed under addition and scalar multiplication. It is thus
a subspace of R3. The dimension of this subspaces is defined
to be zero.
(b) Let v be a basis for a one-dimensional subspace V of R3.
Every vector in V is thus of the form cv, for some scalar c.
We know that these vectors form a line through the origin.
(c) Let {v1, v2}be a basis for a two-dimensional subspace V of R3.
Every vector in V is of the form c1v1 + c2v2. V is thus a plane
through the origin.
Ch04_74
 Theorem 4.13
Let {v1, …, vn} be a basis for a vector space V. Then each vector
in V can be expressed uniquely as a linear combination of these
vectors.
Proof
Let v be a vector in V. Since {v1, …, vn} is a basis, we can
express v as a linear combination of these vectors. Suppose we
can write
v  a1 v1    an v n and v  b1 v1    bn v n
Then
a1 v1    an v n  b1 v1    bn v n
giving (a1  b1 ) v1    (an  bn ) v n  0
Since {v1, …, vn} is a basis, the vectors v1, …, vn are linearly
independent. Thus (a1 – b1) = 0, …, (an – bn) = 0, implying that
a1 = b1, …, an = bn. There is thus only one way of expressing v
as a linear combination of the basis. Ch04_75
 Theorem 4.14
Let V be a vector space of dimension n.
(a) If S = {v1, …, vn} is a set of n linearly independent vectors
in V, then S is a basis for V.
(b) If S = {v1, …, vn} is a set of n vectors V that spans V, then S
is a basis for V.

Let V be a vector space, S = {v1, …, vn} is a set of vectors in V.

(a) dim(V) = |S|.

(b) S is a linearly independent set. S is a basis of V.
(c) S spans V.

Ch04_76
 Example 4
Prove that the set B={(1, 3, -1), (2, 1, 0), (4, 2, 1)} is a basis for R3.
Solution
Since dim(R3)=|B|=3. It suffices to show that this set is linearly
independent or it spans R3.
Let us check for linear independence. Suppose
c1 (1, 3,  1)  c2 (2, 1, 0)  c3 (4, 2, 1)  (0, 0, 0)

This identity leads to the system of equations

c1  2c2  4c3  0
3c1  c2  2c3  0
 c1  c3  0
This system has the unique solution c1 = 0, c2 = 0, c3 = 0.
Thus the vectors are linearly independent.
The set {(1, 3, -1), (2, 1, 0), (4, 2, 1)} is therefore a basis for R3.
Ch04_77
 Theorem 4.15
Let V be a vector space of dimension n. Let {v1, …, vm} be a set
of m linearly independent vectors in V, where m < n.
Then there exist vectors vm+1, …, vn such that
{v1, …, vm, vm+1, …, vn } is a basis of V.

Ch04_78
 Example 5
State (with a brief explanation) whether the following statements
are true or false.
(a) The vectors (1, 2), (1, 3), (5, 2) are linearly dependent in R2.
(b) The vectors (1, 0, 0), (0, 2, 0), (1, 2, 0) span R3.
(c) {(1, 0, 2), (0, 1, -3)} is a basis for the subspace of R3 consisting
of vectors of the form (a, b, 2a 3b).
(d) Any set of two vectors can be used to generate a two-
dimensional subspace of R3.
Solution
(a) True: The dimension of R2 is two. Thus any three vectors
are linearly dependent.
(b) False: The three vectors are linearly dependent. Thus they
cannot span a three-dimensional space.
Ch04_79
(c) True: The vectors span the subspace since
(a, b, 2a -3b) = a(1, 0, 2) + b(0, 1, -3)
The vectors are also linearly independent since they are not
colinear.
(d) False: The two vectors must be linearly independent.

Ch04_80
THE END (To be continue by Sir Toylo)

THANK YOU
AND
GOD SPEED!!!

Ch04_81