ADOPTED PRESENTION FROM

Hole’s Human Anatomy

and Physiology
Twelfth Edition

Shier  Butler  Lewis

Chapter
10
Nervous System I: Basic
Structure and Function

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 10.1: Introduction
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Dendrites
• Cell types in neural tissue:
• Neurons
• Neuroglial cells (also
known as neuroglia, glia,
Cell body
and glial) Nuclei of
neuroglia

Axon

2
© Ed Reschke
 Divisions of the
Nervous System
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Brain

• Central Nervous System (CNS) Cranial

nerves

• Brain
• Spinal cord
Spinal
cord Spinal

• Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

nerves

• Cranial nerves
• Spinal nerves

3
(a)
 Divisions of Peripheral
Nervous System
• Sensory Division
• Picks up sensory information and delivers it to the CNS

• Motor Division
• Carries information to muscles and glands

• Divisions of the Motor Division:

• Somatic – carries information to skeletal muscle
• Autonomic – carries information to smooth muscle,
cardiac muscle, and glands

4
 Divisions Nervous System
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Central Nervous System Peripheral Nervous System

(brain and spinal cord) (cranial and spinal nerves)
Brain
Cranial
nerves

Sensory division Sensory receptors

Spinal
cord Spinal
nerves

Motor division

Somatic
Nervous Skeletal muscle
System

Autonomic Smooth muscle

Nervous Cardiac muscle
System Glands

5
(a) (b)
 10.2: General Functions of
the Nervous System
• The three general functions of the nervous system:
• Receiving stimuli = sensory function
• Deciding about stimuli = integrative function
• Reacting to stimuli = motor function

6
 Functions of Nervous System
• Sensory Function
• Sensory receptors gather
information
• Information is carried to the • Motor Function
CNS • Decisions are acted
upon
• Integrative Function • Impulses are carried
• Sensory information used to to effectors
create:
• Sensations
• Memory
• Thoughts
• Decisions
7
 10.3: Description of Cells of
the Nervous System
• Neurons vary in size and shape
• They may differ in length and size of their axons and
dendrites
• Neurons share certain features:
• Dendrites
• A cell body
• An axon

8
Neuron Structure
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Chromatophilic
substance
(Nissl bodies)

Dendrites

Cell body

Nucleus
Nucleolus

Neurofibrils
Axonal
hillock

Impulse Axon

Synaptic knob of
axon terminal

Nodes of Ranvier

Myelin (cut)

Nucleus of
Axon Schwann cell
Schwann
cell

Portion of a
collateral

9
 Myelination of Axons
• White Matter Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• Contains myelinated Dendrite Unmyelinated

axons region of axon Myelinated region of axon

• Considered fiber tracts

Node of Ranvier

Axon

• Gray Matter
• Contains unmyelinated Neuron Neuron
cell body nucleus

structures (a)

• Cell bodies, dendrites

Enveloping
Schwann cell
Schwann
cell nucleus

Longitudinal
groove

Unmyelinated
axon
(c)

10
 10.4: Classification of Neurons
and Neuroglia
• Neurons vary in function
• They can be sensory, motor, or integrative neurons
• Neurons vary in size and shape, and in the number of axons
and dendrites that they may have
• Due to structural differences, neurons can be classified into
three (3) major groups:
• Bipolar neurons
• Unipolar neurons
• Multipolar neurons 11
 Classification of Neurons:
Functional Differences
• Sensory Neurons
• Afferent
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• Carry impulse to CNS Central nervous system Peripheral nervous system
• Most are unipolar
Cell body
• Some are bipolar Dendrites

Cell body Sensory

• Interneurons Axon Axon
receptor

(central process) (peripheral process)

• Link neurons Sensory (afferent) neuron
• Aka association Interneurons

neurons or internuncial
Motor (efferent) neuron
neurons Axon

• Multipolar Effector
(muscle or gland)
• Located in CNS Axon
Axon
• Motor Neurons terminal

• Multipolar
• Carry impulses away from CNS
• Carry impulses to effectors 12
 Types of Neuroglial Cells
in the PNS
1) Schwann Cells
• Produce myelin found on peripheral myelinated
neurons
• Speed up neurotransmission

2) Satellite Cells
• Support clusters of neuron cell bodies (ganglia)

13
 Types of Neuroglial Cells
in the CNS
1) Microglia 3) Oligodendrocytes
• CNS • CNS
• Phagocytic cell • Myelinating cell

2) Astrocytes 4) Ependyma or ependymal

• CNS • CNS
• Scar tissue • Ciliated
• Mop up excess ions, etc. • Line central canal of spinal
• Induce synapse formation cord
• Connect neurons to blood • Line ventricles of brain
vessels
14
Types of Neuroglial Cells
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Fluid-filled cavity
of the brain or
spinal cord
Neuron

Ependymal
cell

Oligodendrocyte

Astrocyte

Microglial cell

Axon

Myelin
sheath (cut)
Capillary
Node of
Ranvier 15
 Regeneration of A Nerve Axon
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Motor neuron Skeletal

cell body muscle fiber
Changes Site of injury Schwann cells
over time Axon
(a)
Distal portion of
axon degenerates

(b)

Proximal end of injured axon

regenerates into tube of sheath cells
(c)

Schwann cells
degenerate
(d)
Schwann cells
proliferate

(e)

Former connection
reestablished 16
20
 10.5: The Synapse
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• Nerve impulses pass Synaptic

cleft

from neuron to neuron at Impulse

synapses, moving from a Dendrites

pre-synaptic neuron to a Axon of

presynaptic
neuron

post-synaptic neuron. Axon of

postsynaptic
neuron

Axon of
presynaptic
neuron

Cell body of Impulse

postsynaptic
Impulse neuron

17
 Synaptic Transmission
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Direction of

• Neurotransmitters are nerve impulse

Synaptic
Axon
released when impulse Ca+2
vesicles
Ca +2
Presynaptic neuron

reaches synaptic knob

Synaptic knob Cell body or dendrite
of postsynaptic neuron

Mitochondrion

Synaptic
Ca+2 vesicle
Vesicle releasing
neurotransmitter
Axon
membrane
Neurotransmitter
Synaptic cleft

Polarized
membrane
Depolarized 18
membrane
(a)
 Animation:
Chemical Synapse

Please note that due to differing

Please
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in the “Normal” or “Slide Sorter”slides
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All animations will appear after viewing views.
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in Presentation Mode and playing
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19
 10.6: Cell Membrane Potential
• A cell membrane is usually electrically charged, or
polarized, so that the inside of the membrane is negatively
charged with respect to the outside of the membrane (which is
then positively charged).

• This is as a result of unequal distribution of ions on the

inside and the outside of the membrane.

20
 Distribution of Ions
• Potassium (K+) ions are the major intracellular positive ions
(cations).
• Sodium (Na+) ions are the major extracellular positive ions
(cations).
• This distribution is largely created by the Sodium/Potassium
Pump (Na+/K+ pump).
• This pump actively transports sodium ions out of the cell
and potassium ions into the cell.

21
 Resting Potential
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• Resting Membrane Potential

(RMP): High Na+

• 70 mV difference from Low Na+

Impermeant
anions

inside to outside of cell

High K+

Low K+ Cell body Axon Axon terminal

• It is a polarized +
+ +
+ – –

membrane – –
(a)
+ +
– + +
+ – – – –
– – –

• Inside of cell is negative + – – + +

– – – – + +
+ + + +
–70 mV

relative to the outside of (b)

the cell
• RMP = -70 mV High Na+
+
–
+
–
+
–
+
–

• Due to distribution of
Low Na+ +
Na+ + – + +
Pump – – –
K+ – – –
High K+ + – – + +
Low K+ – – + +
+

ions inside vs. outside

+ – +
–70 mV

• Na+/K+ pump restores (c)

25
22
 Local Potential Changes
• Caused by various stimuli:
• Temperature changes Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Gatelike mechanism Protein

• Light
• Pressure
Cell
membrane

Fatty acid
tail
Phosphate
(a) Channel closed head (b) Channel open

• Environmental changes affect the membrane

potential by opening a gated ion channel

• Channels are 1) chemically gated, 2) voltage gated,

or 3) mechanically gated

23
 Local Potential Changes
• If membrane potential becomes more negative, it has
hyperpolarized

• If membrane potential becomes less negative, it has

depolarized

• Graded (or proportional) to intensity of stimulation reaching

threshold potential

• Reaching threshold potential results in a nerve impulse,

starting an action potential
24
 Local Potential Changes
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Na+
Na+

–62 mV
Chemically-gated
Neurotransmitter Na+ channel

Presynaptic
neuron
(a)

Voltage-gated
Na+ channel
Trigger zone
Na+

Na+ Na+ Na+

Na+

–55 mV

25
(b)
 Action Potentials
• At rest, the membrane is Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

polarized (RMP = -70)

Na+
Na +
Na+
Na+
Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+

K+ K+ K+ K+ K+ K+ K+ K+
–0

• Threshold stimulus K+ K+ K+ K+ K+ K+ K+ K+
–70

reached (-55) (a)

Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+

• Sodium channels open Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+

Na+ channels open

and membrane
K+ Na+ Na+ Na+ K+ K+ K+ K+ K+ K+ channels closed
–0
K +
K +

Threshold

depolarizes (toward 0)
stimulus
K+ K+
K+ Na+ Na+ Na+ K+ K+ K+ K+ K+
–70

Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+

• Potassium leaves Region of depolarization

(b)

cytoplasm and
membrane repolarizes K+
K+

Na+
K+

Na+
K+

Na+
Na+

K+
Na+ Na+

K+
Na+

K+
Na+

K+
Na+ Na+

K+
Na+
K+ channels open
Na+ channels closed

(+30)
–0

• Brief period of
K+ Na+ Na+ Na+ K+ K+ K+ K+ K+
–70

K+ K+ K+ Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+

hyperpolarization (-90) Region of repolarization 26

(c)
 Action Potentials
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+40
Action potential
+20
Membrane potential (millivolts)

–20
Resting potential
reestablished
–40
Resting
potential
–60

–80
Hyperpolarization

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Milliseconds 27
Action Potentials
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Region of
action potential

+ + + + + + + + +

+ + – – – – – – – – –

+ + – – – – – – – – –

+ + + + + + + + +

(a)

+ + + + + + + + +

– – – + + – – – – – –
Direction of nerve impulse

– – – + + – – – – – –

+ + + + + + + + +

(b)

+ + + + + + + + +

– – – – – – – + + – –

– – – – – – – + + – –

+ + + + + + + + +
28
(c)
 Animation:
Action Potential Propagation
in Myelinated Neurons

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29
 Animation:
Action Potential Propagation
in Unmyelinated Neurons

Please note that due to differing

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30
 All-or-None Response
• If a neuron responds at all, it responds completely

• A nerve impulse is conducted whenever a stimulus of

threshold intensity or above is applied to an axon

• All impulses carried on an axon are the same strength

31
 Refractory Period
• Absolute Refractory Period
• Time when threshold stimulus does not start another action potential

• Relative Refractory Period

• Time when stronger threshold stimulus can start another action
potential

32
Impulse Conduction

33
 Animation:
The Nerve Impulse

Please note that due to differing

Please
operatingnote that duesome
systems, to differing
animations
operating systems, some animations is
will not appear until the presentation
will not in
viewed appear until theMode
Presentation presentation
(Slide is
viewed in Presentation
Show view). You may see Mode (Slide
blank slides
Show
in the “Normal” or “Slide Sorter”slides
view). You may see blank views.
in the “Normal” or “Slide Sorter”
All animations will appear after viewing views.
All animations will
in Presentation Modeappear after viewing
and playing each
in Presentation Mode and playing
animation. Most animations will require each
animation. Most animations
the latest version of the Flash will require
Player,
the
whichlatest version of
is available at the Flash Player,
which is available at
http://get.adobe.com/flashplayer.
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34
 10.7: Synaptic Transmission
• This is where released neurotransmitters cross the
synaptic cleft and react with specific molecules called
receptors in the postsynaptic neuron membrane.
• Effects of neurotransmitters vary.
• Some neurotransmitters may open ion channels and
others may close ion channels.

35
 Synaptic Potentials
• EPSP
• Excitatory postsynaptic potential
• Graded
• Depolarizes membrane of postsynaptic neuron
• Action potential of postsynaptic neuron becomes more likely

• IPSP
• Inhibitory postsynaptic potential
• Graded
• Hyperpolarizes membrane of postsynaptic neuron
• Action potential of postsynaptic neuron becomes less likely
36
 Summation of
EPSPs and IPSPs
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• EPSPs and IPSPs are added

together in a process called
summation Neuron
• More EPSPs lead to greater cell body

probability of an action Nucleus

potential Presynaptic
knob

Presynaptic
axon

38
37
Neurotransmitters

38
Neurotransmitters

39
 Neuropeptides
• Neurons in the brain or spinal cord synthesize
neuropeptides.

• These neuropeptides act as neurotransmitters.

• Examples include:
• Enkephalins
• Beta endorphin
• Substance P

40
 10.8: Impulse Processing
• Way the nervous system processes nerve impulses and acts
upon them
• Neuronal Pools
• Interneurons
• Work together to perform a common function
• May excite or inhibit
• Convergence
• Various sensory receptors
• Can allow for summation of impulses
• Divergence
• Branching axon
• Stimulation of many neurons ultimately 41
 Neuronal Pools
• Groups of interneurons that make synaptic connections
with each other

• Interneurons work together to perform a common function

• Each pool receives input from other neurons

• Each pool generates output to other neurons

42
 Convergence
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• Neuron receives input from

several neurons

• Incoming impulses represent

2
information from different types 1

of sensory receptors

• Allows nervous system to

collect, process, and respond to
information
3
• Makes it possible for a neuron to
sum impulses from different 45
43
(a)
sources
 Divergence
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• One neuron sends impulses

to several neurons

• Can amplify an impulse

4

• Impulse from a single neuron

in CNS may be amplified to
activate enough motor units
needed for muscle contraction
6

46
44
(b)