4 Applications of Differentiation

Critical Numbers and the Closed Interval

Method

2
The Extreme Value Theorem
If f is continuous on a closed interval [a, b], then f attains an absolute maximum
value f(c) and an absolute minimum value f(d) at some numbers c and d in
[a, b].

3
Critical Numbers and the Closed Interval Method (1 of 5)
The Extreme Value Theorem says that a continuous function on a closed
interval has a maximum value and a minimum value, but it does not tell us how
to find these extreme values.

Figure 11 shows the graph of a function f

with a local maximum at c and a local
minimum at d.

Figure 11

4
Critical Numbers and the Closed Interval Method (2 of 5)
It appears that at the maximum and minimum points the tangent lines are
horizontal and therefore each has slope 0.

We know that the derivative is the slope of the tangent line, so it appears that
f (c )  0 and f (d )  0. The following theorem says that this is always true for
differentiable functions.

4 Fermat’s Theorem If f has a local maximum or minimum at c, and if f (c )

exists, then f (c )  0.

5
 Example 5 (1 of 2)
If f ( x )  x 3 ,then f ( x )  3 x 2 , so f (0)  0.

But f has no maximum or minimum at 0, as you can see from its graph in
Figure 12.

If f  x   x 3 ,then f (0)  0 but ƒ has no maximum or minimum.

Figure 12

6
Example 5 (2 of 2)
The fact that f (0)  0 simply means that the curve y  x 3 has a horizontal
tangent at (0, 0).

Instead of having a maximum or minimum at (0, 0), the curve crosses its
horizontal tangent there.

7
Example 6
The function f  x   x has its (local and absolute) minimum value at 0, but
that value can’t be found by setting f ( x )  0 because, f (0) does not exist. (See
Figure 13.)

If f  x   x , then f (0) = 0 is a minimum value, but

f (0) does not exist.
Figure 13

8
Critical Numbers and the Closed Interval Method (3 of 5)
Examples 5 and 6 show that we must be careful when using Fermat’s Theorem.
Example 5 demonstrates that even when f (c )  0 there need not be a maximum
or minimum at c. (In other words, the converse of Fermat’s Theorem is false in
general.)

Furthermore, there may be an extreme value even when f (c ) does not exist (as
in Example 6).

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Critical Numbers and the Closed Interval Method (4 of 5)
Fermat’s Theorem does suggest that we should at least start looking for extreme
values of f at the numbers c where f (c )  0 or where f (c ) does not exist. Such
numbers are given a special name.

6 Definition A critical number of a function f is a number c in the domain of f

such that either f (c )  0 or f (c ) does not exist.

In terms of critical numbers, Fermat’s Theorem can be rephrased as follows.

7 If f has a local maximum or minimum at c, then c is a critical number of f.

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11
12
Critical Numbers and the Closed Interval Method (5 of 5)
To find an absolute maximum or minimum of a continuous function on a closed
interval, we note that either it is local, or it occurs at an endpoint of the interval.

Thus, the following three-step procedure always works.

The Closed Interval Method To find the absolute maximum and minimum
values of a continuous function f on a closed interval [a, b]:
1. Find the values of f at the critical numbers of f in (a, b).
2. Find the values of f at the endpoints of the interval.
3. The largest of the values from Steps 1 and 2 is the absolute maximum value;
the smallest of these values is the absolute minimum value.

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14
15
16
4.2 The Mean Value Theorem
Rolle’s Theorem

18
Rolle’s Theorem
To arrive at the Mean Value Theorem, we first need the following result.
Rolle’s Theorem Let f be a function that satisfies the following three
hypotheses:
1. f is continuous on the closed interval [a, b].
2. f is differentiable on the open interval (a, b).
3. f (a) = f (b)

Then there is a number c in (a, b) such that f (c )  0.

let’s take a look at the graphs of some typical functions that satisfy the three
hypotheses.

19
Rolle’s Theorem

(a)

20
Rolle’s Theorem

(b) (c)

Figure 1

21
Rolle’s Theorem

(c) (d)

Figure 1

22
 Rolle’s Theorem
In each case it appears that there is at least one point (c, f (c)) on the graph
where the tangent is horizontal and therefore f (c )  0.
Thus, Rolle’s Theorem is plausible.

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Intermediate Value Theorem

The Intermediate Value Theorem states that a continuous function takes on

every intermediate value between the function values f(a) and f(b). It is
illustrated by Figure 8. Note that the value N can be taken on once [as in part
(a)] or more than once [as in part (b)].

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If we think of a continuous function as a function whose graph has no hole or
break, then it is easy to believe that the Intermediate Value Theorem is true. In
geometric terms, it says that if any horizontal line y = N is given between y =
f(a) and y = (b), as in Figure 9, then the graph of f can’t jump over the line. It
must intersect y = N somewhere.

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5x2 + 6x + 1 = 0

Find the roots of the above equation.

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27
One use of the Intermediate Value Theorem is in locating the roots of equations
as in the following example.

28
Example 2
Prove that the equation x 3  x  1  0 has exactly one real solution.

30
Example 2
Prove that the equation x 3  x  1  0 has exactly one real solution.

Solution:
First, we use the Intermediate Value Theorem to show that a root exists.
Let
f  x   x 3  x  1. Then f (0) = −1 < 0 and f (1) = 1 > 0.
Since f is a polynomial, it is continuous, so the Intermediate Value Theorem
states that there is a number c between 0 and 1 such that f (c) = 0.
Thus, the given equation has a root.

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Example 2 – Solution (1 of 2)
To show that the equation has no other real solution, we use Rolle’s
Theorem and argue by contradiction.
Suppose that it had two solutions a and b. Then f (a) = 0 = f (b) and, since f
is a polynomial, it is differentiable on (a, b) and continuous on [a, b].
Thus, by Rolle’s Theorem, there is a number c between a and b such that
f (c )  0.

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Example 2 – Solution (2 of 2)
But
f ′ x   3x 2  1  1 for all x

since x 2

 0 so f ( x ) can never be 0. This gives a contradiction.

Therefore, the equation can’t have two real roots.

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 The Mean Value Theorem
(Lagrange’s Mean Value Theorem)

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The Mean Value Theorem
Our main use of Rolle’s Theorem is in proving the following important theorem,
which was first stated by another French mathematician, Joseph-Louis
Lagrange.
The Mean Value Theorem Let f be a function that satisfies the following
hypotheses:
1. f is continuous on the closed interval [a, b].
2. f is differentiable on the open interval (a, b).
Then there is a number c in (a, b) such that
f  b   f a 
1 f  c  
ba
or, equivalently,
2 f  b   f a   f  c b  a 

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The Mean Value Theorem
We can see that it is reasonable by interpreting it geometrically. Figures 3 and
4 show the points A (a, f (a)) and B (b, f (b)) on the graphs of two differentiable
functions.

Figure 3 Figure 4

36
The Mean Value Theorem
The slope of the secant line AB is

f  b   f a 
3 mAB 
ba

which is the same expression as on the right side of Equation 1.

37
The Mean Value Theorem
Since f (c ) is the slope of the tangent line at the point (c, f (c)), the Mean Value
Theorem, in the form given by Equation 1, says that there is at least one point
P (c, f (c)) on the graph where the slope of the tangent line is the same as the
slope of the secant line AB.

In other words, there is a point P where the tangent line is parallel to the
secant line AB.

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Example 3 (1 of 3)
To illustrate the Mean Value Theorem with a specific function, let’s consider

f  x   x 3  x, a  0, b  2.

Since f is a polynomial, it is continuous and differentiable for all x, so it is

certainly continuous on [0, 2] and differentiable on (0, 2).

Therefore, by the Mean Value Theorem, there is a number c in (0, 2) such that

f  2   f 0   f  c  2  0 

39
Example 3 (2 of 3)
Now f (2) = 6,
f (0) = 0, and
f   x   3 x 2  1, so, this equation becomes


6  3c 2  1 2 
 6c 2  2
4 2 2
which gives c  , that is, c  
2
. But c must lie in (0, 2), so c  .
3 3 3

40
Example 3 (3 of 3)
Figure 6 illustrates this calculation:
the tangent line at this value of c is parallel to the secant line OB.

Figure 6

41
The main significance of the Mean Value Theorem is that it enables us to
obtain information about a function from information about its derivative.
The next example provides an instance of this principle.

43
Example 5
Suppose that f (0) = −3 and f ( x )  5 for all values of x. How large can f(2)
possibly be?

44
Example 5
Suppose that f (0) = −3 and f ( x )  5 for all values of x. How large can f(2)
possibly be?

Solution:
We are given that f is differentiable (and therefore continuous) everywhere.
In particular, we can apply the Mean Value Theorem on the interval [0, 2].
There exists a number c such that
f (2)  f (0)  f (c )(2  0)

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Example 5 – Solution
So
f  2   f 0   2f  c   3  2f  c 

We are given that f ( x )  5 for all x, so in particular we know that f (c )  5.

Multiplying both sides of this inequality by 2, we have 2f (c )  10, so

f  2   3  2f  c   3  10  7

The largest possible value for f(2) is 7.

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The Mean Value Theorem
The Mean Value Theorem can be used to establish some of the basic facts of
differential calculus.

One of these basic facts is the following theorem.

5 Theorem If f ( x )  0 for all x in an interval (a, b), then f is constant on (a, b).

7 Corollary If f ( x )  g ( x ) for all x in an interval (a, b), then f − g is constant on

(a, b); that is, f (x) = g(x) + c where c is a constant.

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