Business Research Method

• Course for Master of Business Administration (MBA)

• Course code MBA612

• Credit 2

• Instructor : Kassegne Damtew (AP)

• Email [email protected]
 SYNOPISIS
• Chapter I - Research Methods: An introduction
• Chapter II - Defining Research Problem and Hypothesis
Formulation
• Chapter III - Research Proposal

• Chapter IV - Research Design (planning of research project

• Chapter V - Sources and Methods of data collection

• Chapter VI - Sample Design and Procedure

• Chapter VII - Data analysis (an overview)
• Chapter VIII -Interpretation & reporting the research result
 Chapter I - Research Methods: An
introduction

1.1. Meanings of Research

1.2. Types of Research
1.3. Motivation of doing Research
1.4. Research and Scientific Method
1.5. Research Process
1.6. Criteria of Good Research
 .

1.1. What is Research

 Background

How do people solve problems they encounter?

i. Experience

ii. Reasoning

iii. Scientific Methods

 i. Experience

i. People largely depends on their experiences

to find solutions to many of their problems
• Personal experience, i.e., body of knowledge
and skills derived from encounters and acquaintance
with facts and events in his environment

• Experience of others

• Sources beyond immediate circle, i.e., authoritative

sources (is a work known to be reliable, that you can trust true )
 .
• EXPERIENCE & AUTHORITY (a person with special knowledge)

• are richly fertile sources of hypotheses, but

they are common sense knowing, often based
on haphazard events and use loose & uncritical manner
and hence not scientific

• Personal experience or seeing is

believing is accepted as true but may
lead you astray.
 ii. Reasoning
• Reasoning – The drawing of inferences or
conclusions from known or assumed facts.

• When solving a problem, one must understand the

question, gather all pertinent facts, analyze the
problem i.e. compare with previous problems (note
similarities and differences), perhaps use pictures or
formulas to solve the problem.
 Information Inference Assumption
People who have black
1. You see a man with a black
eye someone .
He has been hit by
eyes have been hit

2. A police officer trails your He is trying to catch me Anytime a police officer

• .
car for several blocks breaking the
law
trails you he is trying to
catch you breaking the
law
3. During class, a student asks This student is not
“is this going to be on the interested Students who ask
test?” in learning the subject questions like: “Is this
going to be on the test?”
are not interested in
4. You see a child crying next to her learning the subject
mother in a
grocery store

5. You see a man

in tattered clothes sitting on
a curb with a paper bag in
his hand
 Information Inference Assumption
. The mother has hurt the
.

4. You see a child crying child

Whenever a child is crying
next to her mother in a
next to her mother she has
grocery store
been hurt by her mother

5. You see a man

He must be a bum
in tattered clothes sitting on All men in tattered
a curb with a paper bag in clothes sitting on
his hand curbs with paper
bags in their hands
are bums
 Deductive Reasoning

• Deductive Reasoning – A type of logic in

which one goes from a general statement to a
specific instance.
• The classic example
All men are mortal. (major premise)
Socrates is a man. (minor premise)
Therefore, Socrates is mortal. (conclusion)
 .

• In deductive reasoning,

if something is true of a class of things in general, it is

also true for all members of that class.
For example, "All men are mortal. Cheru is a man.
Therefore, Churu is mortal."
For deductive reasoning to be sound, the hypothesis
must be correct.
It is assumed that the premises, "All men are mortal"
and “Cheru is a man" are true. Therefore, the
conclusion is logical and true.
 Inductive Reasoning
• A process of reasoning that moves from making
observations to conclusions. This is also called
inference.
• Inductive reasoning can also be thought of as theory
building.
• Successful inductive reasoning depends on the quality
of your observations, or evidence.
• If the quality of the observations are not good
enough, or if not enough observations have been
made, inductive reasoning may not be as dependable
as deductive reasoning.
 Inductive reasoning

• Inductive reasoning makes broad generalizations from specific

observations.
• "In inductive inference, we go from the specific to the general.
• We make many observations, discern a pattern, make a
generalization, and infer an explanation or a theory.
• In science there is a constant interplay between inductive
inference (based on observations) and deductive inference (based
on theory.
• Integration of these forms the scientific method
• Induction moves from the specific to the general.
• Cat A has a tail,
• Cat B has a tail,
• Cat C has a tail,
• Cat D has a tail,
• ::::::::::::::::::::::
• therefore
 Is the following argument best classified as deductive or
inductive?

1. I heard lots of barking last night. The neighbor’s dog

must’ve been pretty upset about something, since he
rarely barks.
2. All dogs bark. Fido is a dog. So Fido barks.
3. Jack is taller than Jill. Jill is taller than Joey.
Therefore, Jack is taller than Joey
4. Some cookies are burnt. Some burnt things are good
to eat. So some cookies are good to eat.
5. If all the people you've ever met from a particular town have been
very strange, you might then say "all the residents of this town are
 ANSWERS
1. The correct answer was: Inductive.
• The speaker is relying on a collection of experiences to draw
an inference. The speaker infers that the barking emanates
from a dog, and not just any dog but the neighbor’s dog.
Moreover, the speaker associates being upset with lots of
barking, and a lack of the latter with respect to the
neighbor’s dog.

2. Deductive

3. Deductive

4. Inductive

5. Inductive
 iii. Scientific Methods
• People search for truth or knowledge through
systematic study , or what is commonly called
scientific Method.
• There are different problems that can not be solved
without scientific approach .
• Scientific approach is an objective ,logical, and
systematic method of collection and analysis of
phenomenon devised to permit the accumulation of
reliable knowledge.
 The Scientific Approach
The central scientific methodology (not a single
“scientific method”) has the following general steps:

1) Identify the problem/issue/question

2) Define research objectives

3) Develop approaches for achieving objectives

(including hypotheses of expected outcomes)

4) Conduct the analysis (testing the hypothesis)

5) Interpret the results and draw conclusions

These steps are common to all disciplines

 Philosophy in Business and Management
research

• What is research philosophy and why is it

important?
• Where philosophy fits into your research?
• What types of research philosophy are
available?
 ‘

• In any research be it physical science, life

science or the social science
• The research process begins with an
interesting thought about the world around
us.
• Research through its final result must add
something of value to the body theoretical
knowledge.
 What is research philosophy?

• What is “research?”
• Research is concerned with seeking solutions to
problems or answers to meaningful questions in a
systematic manner that is accessible to others
• Research philosophy affects how you conceptualise:
– The object/phenomenon you are studying
– The theory you use to understand, test or develop
– The contribution you make
 Types of research philosophy

• Positivism
• Post positivism
• Interpretivism
 Positivism
• A system of philosophy based on things that can be seen or proved
rather than on ideas .
• Highlights that scientific inqury should rely on obsevable and
measurable facts rather than on subjective experiences
• The world exists externally to ourselves, it is external and objective and

we can find out the singular truth about it (the object/phenomenon you are studying)

• Its properties should be discovered through objective, detached

methods (affecting the theory/methodology/methods used/developed)

• Knowledge (your contribution)

– can only be based on hard, observed and tested facts

– mainly based on description, explanation and/or prediction of a limited number of

fairly straightforward issues
 Post -positivism

• A complete rejection of the core values positivism

• Points out that observation can be subjected to errors
• They do not rely on a single method of scientific
inquiry.
• They believe that each method can have errors .
• Theses can be avoided if a number of methods are
used . This is referred to as triangulation.
• It assumes scientists are never objective and are
biased due to cultural beliefs
 Interpretivism
• Interpretivism an approach to social science that
opposes the positivism of natural science.
• An Interpretive approach to social research would be
much more qualitative, using methods such as
unstructured interviews or participant observation
 How to determine your own research philosophy
Consider your own research background /
experience
Consider your topic (theoretical basis, research
subjects, desired knowledge etc)
Read widely on research philosophy – there are
many often contrasting and contradictory views
Engage in philosophical debate with peers,
supervisors, yourself
Show this in your thesis, building a case for your
own philosophical stance
Let this then lead your methodology
 Conclusions

• There is no right or wrong research philosophy, but a

well argued case for the one you prefer showing
understanding of alternatives
• Your research philosophy will guide your
methodology and your overall approach to your
• It’s hard but vital! An understanding of alternative
philosophies will make you a much better researcher.
 Research is

1. A voyage of discovery; A journey; An attitude;

An experience; A method of critical thinking; A careful
critical enquiry in seeking facts for principles
2. An art of scientific investigation
 Scientific and systematic search for pertinent
information on a specific topic
 Process of arriving at dependable solutions to
problems through the planned and systematic
collection, analysis and interpretation of data
 .

3. A systematized effort to gain new knowledge; A

movement from the known to the unknown

Search for (new) knowledge/ facts through objective,

systematic and scientific method of finding solution to

a problem
 Research is

1. Systematic – research process

2. Logical – induction/deduction
3. Empirical – evidence based
4. Reductive – generalisation
5. Replicable – methodology.
 Objectives of Research

 To achieve new insights into a

phenomenon

 To know about the existing phenomenon

 To know extent of a cause or effect

variables

 To establish relationship between variables

 1.2. Types of Research
The basic types of research are as follows:
1. Descriptive vs. Analytical
Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of
different kinds.
• Surveys
• State of affairs as it exists
• No control over variables
• Case Study
– Accrual of detailed information from an individual
• Survey
• Cross-sectional: Status of a various groups at a given point in
time
• Longitudinal: Status of a given group at various points in time
• Correlational: Relationships between variables

Descriptive research means describing state of affairs – Mostly

involves primary data – ex-post research
 ANALYTICAL
• Uses facts or information already available and analyze to make a critical
evaluation
• Reviews
– A critical account of present understanding
• Historical Research
– Accessing both primary (e.g. witnesses) or secondary (e.g.
literature) sources to document past events
• Philosophical Research
– Organising existing evidence into a comprehensive theoretical
model

Analytical research means carrying out analysis on a

phenomenon – Mostly involves secondary data – ex-ante
research- before contemplated change
 ii. Applied vs. Fundamental
APPLIED/ ACTION

• Finding a solution for an immediate problem

• The central aim of applied research is to discover a solution for some pressing

practical problem

FUNDAMENTAL (BASIC OR PURE)

• Concerned with generalizations & formulation of theory

• Knowledge for knowledge’s sake (I.e., pure or basic research

• Research concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics

• Research studies, concerning human behavior carried on with a view to make

generalisations about human behavior

• Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake is termed ‘pure’ or ‘basic’ research.”

III. Quantitative vs. Qualitative
• Quantitative research is based on the measurement of
quantity or amount.
• It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in
terms of quantity
• Measured & expressed in terms of quantity
• Expression of a property or quantity in numerical terms
Quantitative research helps:
1. Precise measurement
2. Knowing trends or changes overtime
3. Comparing trends or individual libraries / units
 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
• is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating to or

involving quality or kind.

• For instance, when we are interested in investigating the reasons for human

behavior (i.e., why people think or do certain things), we quite often talk of

qualitative research.

• This type of research aims at discovering the underlying motives and desires,

using in depth interviews for the purpose.

• Other techniques of such research are word association tests, sentence

completion tests, story completion tests and similar other projective techniques.

• Attitude or opinion research i.e., research designed to find out how people feel or

what they think about a particular subject or institution is also qualitative

research.
 Quantitative versus Qualitative

Quantitative Research Strategy Qualitative Research Strategy

Investigation aims to assess a pre-stated Investigation aims to create a novel theory

theory (Deductive Reasoning) (Inductive Reasoning)

Often involves hypothesis testing Researcher becomes an inherent part of the

Attempts to minimise the influence of the study

researcher on the outcome Qualitative data infers complex statements

Quantitative data infers statistics or opinions

Data collection therefore requires ‘closed’ Data collection therefore permits ‘open’

responses responses
 iv. Conceptual vs. Empirical
CONCEPTUAL
• Related to some abstract idea or theory (for thinkers &
philosophers)
• Relies on literature

EMPIRICAL
• Relies on experience or observation alone, i.e., data
based research
• Capable of being verified by observation or experiment

• Experimenter has control over variables

 V. OTHER TYPES
i. One time/ Cross sectional vs Longitudinal/Developmental & Trend or prediction
studies (the time domain)
ii. Field setting vs Lab / Simulation research
iii. Clinical vs diagnostic studies
iv. Exploratory vs Formulated (the degree of formulation of the problem) studies
v. Historical studies (Greater part of it is quantitative)

vi. Correlational research

vii. Content analysis : is a technique for systematically
describing written, spoken or visual communication. It provides a
quantitative (numerical) description. Many content analyses
involve media - print (newspapers, magazines), television, video,
movies, the Internet.
Types of research according to Trochim’s Classifications…

I. Descriptive
e.g., percentage of regular exercisers

II. Relational
e.g., link between age and exercise

III.Causal
e.g., effect of behavior change intervention on
exercise participation
 1.3. Motivation of doing Research

• What makes people to undertake research?

• The possible motives for doing research may be either one or
more of the following:
• Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential
benefits;
• Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems,
i.e., concern over practical problems initiates research;
• Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;
• Desire to be of service to society;
• Desire to get respectability.
 .
• However, this is not an exhaustive list of factors,

• Directives of government, employment conditions, curiosity

about new things, desire to understand causal relationships,
social thinking and awakening, and the like may as well
motivate (or at times compel) people to perform research
operations
• To get a degree

• To get respectability

• To face a challenge

• To solve a problem

• To get intellectual joy

• To serve society
1.4. Research and Scientific Method

• Research…
– the application of the scientific method
– a systematic process of collecting and logically analyzing
information (data)
Scientific Method
• The pursuit of truth as determined by logical
considerations
• Classifies facts, sees their mutual relation through
experimentation, observation, logical arguments from
accepted postulates
The Scientific Method
1) Problem/Question :
Develop a question or problem that can be solved through
experimentation.
2) Hypothesis:
Testable Prediction that follows from your research question that can be
tested and evaluated.
3) Methods:
What will be your procedures for testing your hypothesis?
4) Data Collection:
Record observations regarding data related to the problem you are
interested in.
5) Inferences/Interpretation
What can you say about your hypothesis based on your observations? Is
your hypothesis supported by your observations?
6) Sharing your conclusions
Scientists write reports and give presentations to inform others about their
research!
 Basic Postulates of Scientific Method
1. Relies on empirical evidence (empiricism)

2. Utilizes relevant concepts

3. Committed to only objective considerations

4. Presupposes ethical neutrality

5. Results into probabilistic predictions

6. Methodology is made known to all for critical scrutiny and

testing through replication

7. Aims at formulating most general axioms or scientific

theories

8. Encourages rigorous, impersonal mode of procedure dictated

by the demands of logic and objective procedure
 1.5. Research Process

1. Problem Identification

2. Literature survey

3. Statements of Hypotheses or Questions

4. Defining the Research Methodology (sample design,Pilot study

Data collection

5. Processing & analysis of data

Testing hypotheses
Interpretation & generalisation
6. Conclusion and Recommendation

7. Preparation of the report

 1. Formulating the research problem
• There are two types of research problems,
• those which relate to states of nature and
• those which relate to relationships between variables.
• At the very outset the researcher must single out the
problem he wants to study, i.e., he must decide the
general area of interest or aspect of a subject-matter
that he would like to inquire into
 2. Extensive literature survey
• Once the problem is formulated, a brief summary of it should
be written down.
• It is compulsory for a research worker to write a synopsis of the
topic.
• At this juncture the researcher should undertake extensive
literature survey connected with the problem.
3. Development of working hypotheses
• After extensive literature survey, researcher should state in
clear terms the working hypothesis or hypotheses.
• Working hypothesis is tentative assumption made in order to
draw out and test its logical or empirical consequences
 4.Preparing the research Methodology

• The research problem having been formulated in

clear cut terms, the researcher will be required to
prepare a research design
 1.6. Criteria of Good Research

• The objective of the research clearly defined

• The research methodology used should be described in sufficient

detail to permit another researcher to repeat the research for further

advancement

• The sampling design should be such as to yield least error

• The writing should be done with complete frankness – nothing which

has bearing on the result should be hidden

• The validity and reliability of data as a well as calculations should be

re-checked to avoid mistakes

• Conclusions should be confined to those justified by data and analysis

• Researcher should be a person of integrity

 .

• SYSTEMATIC - Reject the use of guessing & intuition, but does

not rule out creative thinking
• CONTROLLED – Variables are identified & controlled, wherever
possible
• LOGICAL - Guided by rules of logical reasoning & logical
process of induction & deduction
• EMPIRICAL- Provides a basis for external validity to results
(validation)
• REPLICABLE - Verified by replicating the study

• SELF CORRECTING - Built in mechanism & open to public

scrutiny by fellow professionals
 Research Methods and Research Methodology
• Research techniques refer to the behavior and instruments we use in
performing research operations such as making observations, recording
data, techniques of processing data and the like.
• Research methods refer to the behavior and instruments used in
selecting and constructing research technique

Type of Research Methods of Research Technique of Research

Quantitative Field Questionnaire Researcher uses open and close

Research ended questions

Focused Group Researcher selects a particular

Discussion group for the detailed discussion

Research methodology is a way to systemically solve the research

problem
Research methodology has a broader dimension than research
methods
 Questions
1. Briefly describe the different steps involved in a
research process.
2. What do you mean by research? Explain its
significance in modern times.
3. Distinguish between Research methods and
Research methodology.
4. Describe the different types of research
 CASE ANALYSIS
• Read the following studies and answer the questions below

1. A researcher is interested in whether there is a relationship between the sporting events

in which siblings choose to engage. This researcher sent a survey to 500 different

families and asked parents to write down the age and sex of each child and to list in

which sports each child participated. The researcher collected all of the surveys and

examined whether there was a relationship between siblings’ choice of sports

A. What research method was employed in this study? Questionnaire

B. Is the study described above correlational or experimental? (circle one)

Why?

C. Is the study described above cross-sectional, longitudinal, or sequential?

D. What are the independent and dependent variables?

Type of Sports are dependent variable and age and sex of children are independent

variables. Children are born either female or male independently of sport types. But

the type of sport they play depends on their age and sex.
 .

2. A researcher was interested in how children learn how to settle

disagreements with peers. The researcher talked to his five-year-
old daughter and asked her to describe how she interacted with
her peers. The researcher then read a few stories to his daughter about children
her age who got into disagreements and asked her what she would do in that
situation. The researcher continued to interview his daughter like this for five
years.
A. What research method was employed in this study? Interview
B. Is the study described above correlational or experimental? (circle one) Why?
C. Is the study described above cross-sectional, longitudinal, or sequential?
D. What are the independent and dependent variables?
The number of years is independent variable and the age of the daughter and
reasons for disagreement are dependent variables.
.

• Chapter II
• Defining Research Problem
and Hypothesis Formulation
2.1. What is Research Problem?

• A research problem, in general, refers to some

difficulty which a researcher experiences in the
context of either a theoretical or practical situation and
wants to obtain a solution for the same.
• To define a problem correctly, a researcher
must know: what a problem is?
 Clarify the problem

• .
Desired/Ideal
Situation

Gap = problem

Current situation

We need to understand the current situation ( measured,

standard )
A gap b/n a desired and actual condition
. Usually we say that a research problem does exist if the
following conditions are met with:

i. an individual or a group which has some difficulty

or the problem.
ii. some objective(s) to be attained at.
 If one wants nothing, one cannot have a
problem.
iii. Must be alternative means (or the courses of
action) for obtaining the objective(s) one wishes
to attain
• There must be at least two means available to a
researcher for
• if he has no choice of means, he cannot have a
problem.
 .

iv. There must remain some doubt in the mind of a

researcher with regard to the selection of
alternatives.
• This means that research must answer the
question concerning the relative efficiency of the
possible alternatives.
v. There must be some environment(s) to which
the difficulty pertains.
 .
• Thus, a research problem is one which requires a
researcher to find out the best solution for the given
problem, i.e., to find out by which course of action
the objective can be attained optimally in the context
of a given environment
 SELECTING THE PROBLEM
o The research problem undertaken for study must be carefully
selected.
o The task is a difficult one, although it may not appear to be so
o Subject which is overdone should not be normally chosen,
for it will be a difficult task to throw any new light in such a
case.
o Controversial subject should not become the choice of an
average researcher.
o Too narrow or too vague (fuzzy) problems should be avoided.
o The subject selected for research should be familiar and
feasible so that the related research material or sources of
research are within one’s reach.
 .

o Read articles published in current literature

available on the subject and may think how the
techniques and ideas discussed there in might be
applied to the solution of other problems.
o Discuss with others what he has in mind concerning
a problem. In this way he should make all possible
efforts in selecting a problem.
TECHNIQUE IN DEFINING A PROBLEM

i. statement of the problem in a general way;

ii. understanding the nature of the problem;
iii. surveying the available literature
iv. developing the ideas through discussions; and
v. rephrasing the research problem into a working
proposition.
(i) Statement of the problem in a general way

• the problem should be stated in a broad general way,

keeping in view either some practical concern or
some scientific or intellectual interest.
• In case of social research, it is considered advisable
to do some field observation, some sort of preliminary
survey or what is often called pilot survey.
• Then the researcher can himself state the problem or
he can seek the guidance of the guide or the subject
expert in accomplishing this task.
(ii) Understanding the nature of the problem:

• Understand its origin and nature clearly

• to discuss it with those who first raised it in order to
find out how the problem originally came about and
with what objectives in view
• A discussion with those who have a good knowledge
of the problem concerned or similar other problems.
• The researcher should also keep in view the
environment within which the problem is to be
studied and understood
 (iii) Surveying the available literature:
– All available literature concerning the problem must necessarily be
surveyed and examined
• It will be well-conversant with relevant theories in the field, reports
and records
• To find out what data and other materials -- “Knowing what data are
available often serves to narrow the problem itself as well as the
technique that might be used.”
• If there are certain gaps in the theories, or whether the existing
theories applicable to the problem under study are inconsistent with
each other, or whether the findings of the different studies do not
follow a pattern consistent with the theoretical expectations and so on.
• for indicating the type of difficulties that may be encountered in the
present study as also the possible analytical shortcomings
 (iv) Developing the ideas through discussions

–often produces useful information

–Various new ideas can be developed
–Discuss problem with colleagues and others who have
enough experience in the same area or in working on
similar problems --- known as an experience survey.
–People with rich experience are in a position to
enlighten the researcher on different aspects of his
proposed study and their advice and comments are
usually invaluable to the researcher --- sharpen his
 (v) Rephrasing the research problem

• to rephrase the research problem into a working

proposition
• rephrasing the problem into analytical or operational
terms is not a difficult task
• Through rephrasing, the researcher puts the research
problem in as specific terms as possible so that it
may become operationally viable and may help in the
development of working hypotheses
 An example
• Let us suppose that a research problem in a broad
general way is as follows:
– “is productivity in Japan so much higher than in India”?

– It has a number of ambiguities such as

• What sort of productivity is being referred to?

• With what industries the same is related?

• With what period of time the productivity is being talked

about?
• In view of all such ambiguities the given statement or the
question is much too general to be amenable to analysis.
• Rethinking and discussions about the problem may result in

.
narrowing down the question to:
• Example
– “What factors were responsible for the higher labour
productivity of Japan’s manufacturing industries during the
decade 1971 to 1980 relative to India’s manufacturing
industries?”
• Further rethinking and rephrasing might place the problem
on a still better operational basis as shown below:
– “To what extent did labour productivity in 1971 to 1980 in
Japan exceed that of India in respect of 15 selected
manufacturing industries?
– What factors were responsible for the productivity
differentials between the two countries by industries?”
How Research Problems Differ for Quantitative and
Qualitative Research

• Use quantitative research if your research problem requires you to:

• Measure variables

• Assess the impact of these variables on an outcome

• Test theories or broad explanations

• Apply results to a large number of people

Use qualitative research if your research problem requires you to:

• Learn about the views of the people you plan to study

• Assess a process over time

• Generate theories based on participant perspectives

• Obtain detailed information about a few people or research sites

 Formulating a research problem

• refers to identifying what it is that you want to

find out about
Steps in the formulation of a research problem
1. Identify a broad field or subject area of interest to you.

2. Dissect the broad area into subareas.

3. Select what is of most interest to you.

4. Raise research questions.

5. Formulate objectives

6. Assess your objectives

7. Double-check
 Step 1: Identify a broad field or subject
area of interest to you .
Ex: If you are studying marketing you might be interested in researching
consumer behavior (customer satisfaction).

Step 2: Dissect the broad area into subareas

1- Profile of satisfied customers
2- Antecedents of customers satisfaction
3- The effect of customer satisfaction on consumer
related outcomes
4- Measurement of customer satisfaction
 Step 3: Select what is of most interest to you.

• It is neither advisable nor feasible to study all

subareas.
• Go through your list and delete all those subareas
in which you are not very interested.
•  select: Antecedents of customers satisfaction
 Step 4: Raise research questions
1- What is the effect of customer expectation on
customer satisfaction?
2- What is the effect of service quality on
customer satisfaction?
3- What is the effect of word of mouth
communication on customer satisfaction
Customer expectation
Customer
Service quality satsfaction

Word of mouth
communication
 Step 5: Formulate objectives
• Your objectives grow out of your research questions.

• The main difference between objectives and research

questions is the way in which they are written.

• Research questions are obviously that—questions.

Objectives transform these questions into behavioral

aims by using action-oriented words such as 'to find

out', 'to determine', 'to ascertain' and 'to examine‘, ‘to

measure’, ‘to explore’.

 Examples
• To find out the opinion of the employees about the medical facilities provided

by five star hotels in Kombolcha.

• To ascertain the impact of training on employee retention.

• To compare the effectiveness of different loyalty programmes on repeat

clientele.

• To ascertain if an increase in working hours will increase the incidence of drug

abuse.

• To demonstrate that the provision of company accommodation to employees in

hotels will reduce staff turnover.

 Specific objectives.
 To determine the effect of customer expectation on
customer satisfaction
 To find out the effect of service quality on customer
satisfaction
 To identify how word of mouth communication impact
on customer satisfaction
Paraphrasing research questions as research objectives

Research Question Research Objective

Why have organizations To identify organization’s

introduced early retirement ? objectives for introducing
retirement schemes.

What are the consequences To describe the consequences of

of early retirement schemes ? Early recruitment for
employees.
To explore the effects of early
retirement for the organization.
 Step 6: Assess your objectives
• Examine your objectives to ascertain the feasibility of
achieving them in the light of the time, resources
(financial and human) and technical expertise at your
disposal.
 Types of Research Questions

• Conceptualize that a research study can ask three

types of questions:
o Descriptive question

o Relationship question

o Difference question

• This general classification scheme helps not only with

the design of the study, but also in choosing the type
of data analysis procedure
 Descriptive Question
• Seeks to describe phenomena or characteristics of a

particular group of subjects being studied

– Answers the question “what is”

• Asking questions of the research participants

• Testing or measuring their performance

– Survey research

• Example
– What are the attitudes of rural parents toward the inclusion of

sexuality education in the school curriculum? (Welshimer & Harris,

1994)
 Relationship Question

• Investigates the degree to which two or more

variables are associated with each other
– Does not establish “cause-and-effect”

– Only identifies extent of relationship between variables

• Example
– Is there an association between self-esteem and eating
behaviors among collegiate female swimmers? (Fey, 1998)
 Difference Question
• Seeks to make comparisons between or within groups of
interest
– Often associated with experimental research
• Is there a difference between the control group and the
experimental group?
– Comparison of one group to another on the basis of existing
characteristics
• Example
– Does participation in Special Olympics affect the self-esteem
of adults with mental retardation? (Major, 1998)
 Concept of Variables

• A variable is a characteristic, trait, or attribute of a

person or thing that can be classified or measured

• Variable - the condition or characteristic which in a

given study may have more than one value

• variable…
– any observation that can take on different values

• attribute…
– a specific value on a variable
 Examples
Variable Attribute
age 18,20,21, etc.
Gender or sex Male, female

satisfaction 1 = very satisfied

2 = satisfied
3= somewhat satisfied
4 = not satisfied
5 = not satisfied at all
 Classification of Variables

• Quantitative – measured numerically

– Discrete: Jumps from category to category
without intervening steps.

– Continuous : Increases steadily in tiny fractions

• Qualitative – categorical in nature

 Independent Variable

 Independent
 Cause

 Action

 Intervention

• A variable that is presumed to influence

another variable; the variable under study or

the one that the researcher manipulates

 Dependent Variable

• Dependent
 Effect, outcome

 Reaction

 Response

• The variable that is expected to change as a

result of the manipulation of the independent
variable; that which is measured in a study
 Extraneous Variable

• A variable that could contribute some type of error in a

research study

• EXAMPLE

• Confounding Variable / Third Variable: also known as a

third variable or a mediator variable, can adversely affect the

relation between the independent variable and

dependent variable. This may cause the researcher to

analyze the results incorrectly. The results may show a

false correlation between the dependent and independent

variables, leading to an incorrect rejectionof the

null hypothesis.
 Controlling Extraneous Variables
• Excluding the variable
• Random selection of research participants
• Matching cases according to some criterion
 Hypothesis
• A Hypothesis is an educated guess that is testable

• A hypothesis is a statement of the predicted relationship

between two or more variables

• A formal statement of the expected relationships among

variables

A Hypothesis Must

• Predict a relationship between two or more variables

• Be testable

• Be justifiable (based on rationale/theory)

 Criteria
• Is written in the present tense.
• There is a positive relationship between the number of times children

have been hospitalized and their fear of hospitalization .

• Contains the variables.

• Is empirically testable

• Be simple and concise

• Is written in a declarative sentences.

• Remember that hypothesis are not required

if only one variable is being examined

 Hypothesis Formulation

1. Formulate a hypothesis

2. Frame the hypothesis in a format that is

testable

3. Test the hypothesis

 1. Hypothesis Formulation

• Observations from
• Literature
• Natural experiments
• Multi-national comparisons
• Descriptive studies (assessment of person, place,
and time characteristics)
• Creativity
 2. Hypothesis Framing

Suggest possible events…

Ho : Average life of the bulb is greater than or equal to 1000 hrs .

Suggest relationship

H0: There is no a positive relationship between

amount of exercise and weight loss among dieting

women
H1:There is a positive relationship between amount of exercise and

weight loss among dieting women

 Suggest cause-effect relationship

• Cigarette smoking is a cause of lung cancer

 TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS
pronounced
H “nought”

 Null Hypothesis (denoted H 0):

is the statement being tested in a test of hypothesis.

 Alternative Hypothesis (Ha):

is what is believe to be true if the null hypothesis is

false
 .

• The Null hypothesis, denoted by H0 , represents the

status quo and involves stating the belief that the

mean of the population is <, =, or > a specific value.

• The alternative hypothesis, denoted by H1 , represents

the opposite of the null hypothesis and holds true if the

null hypothesis is found to be false. (<, not =, or > a
specific value)

• The detail Hypothesis testing will be a

subject of the coming chapter.
 Activity

1. What is research problem?

Define the main issues which should receive the attention of

the researcher in formulating the research problem. Give

suitable examples to elucidate your points.

2. Describe difference b/n research questions and

objective statements

3. Discuss hypothesis
 Practice Questions
1. Is the study descriptive, relational, or causal?

2. Is the study cross-sectional or longitudinal?

3. What is (are) the IV (IVs)?

4. What is (are) the DV (DVs)?

5. What are the alternative and null hypotheses

A. The purpose of the study was to examine the link between

age and physical fitness levels in terms of muscular strength
and endurance. It was hypothesized that older and younger
adults would demonstrate significantly different fitness
levels.
 .

B. The purpose of the study was to determine whether track athletes

trained to use mental imagery performed superior to athletes who

did not receive the mental imagery training. We expected those

athletes receiving the training would perform significantly better

than the untrained athletes.

C. The study examined the effects of an acute bout of resistance

training on participants’ mood and cognitive functioning at 1, 6

and 12 hours post exercise. It was expected that the positive

effects on mood and cognitive function would decline over time.

D. Participants at the 2009 Chicago Marathon were polled to

determine their satisfaction with the course. The race officials

hoped for positive reactions on the part of the runners.

 Write a hypothesis for each of the following research
problems. Identify the dependent and independent variable
for each
1. What effect does studying with music have on student test scores?
• Ho: ………………………………………………………
• Ha: ……………………………………………………
• Independent variable:………………………..
• Dependent variable…………………………..
2. What effect does light have on plant growth?
 Ho :………………………………………………………
• Ha:……………………………………………………
• Independent variable……………………………:
• Dependent variable…………………………………
3. If calcium is given, then bone strength will increase
 Ho :………………………………………………………
• Ha:……………………………………………………
• Independent variable……………………………:
• Dependent variable…………………………………
4. If trees have leaves, then bird nests will increase.
• Ho :………………………………………………………
• Ha:……………………………………………………
• Independent variable……………………………:
• Dependent variable…………………………………
5. If plants are watered, then growth height will increase.
• Ho :………………………………………………………
• Ha:……………………………………………………
• Independent variable……………………………:
• Dependent variable…………………………………