Introduction to Remote Sensing

Instructor
Mr.Abdallah.H.Kindemile
Text:
 Class Notes
 Jensen, J. R, 2006: Remote Sensing of Environment. Prentice Hall; 2
edition.

References:

 Campbell, J. B, 2006: Introduction to Remote Sensing. The Guilford

Press, Fourth Edition.
 Chuvieco, E, 2007: Fundamentals of Satellite Remote Sensing, CRC-
Press.
 Cracknel, A. P, 2006: Introduction to Remote Sensing. Taylor & Francis,
2nd Edition.
 Elachi, C. and van Zyl, J. J, 2006: Introduction to The Physics and
Techniques of Remote Sensing. Wiley-Interscience.
 Grainger, R. G, 2007: Atmospheric Remote Sounding, CRC-Press.
 Jensen, J, 2006: Introduction to Remote Sensing. Prentice Hall, 2nd
Edition.
 Rees, W. G, 2001: Physical Principles of Remote Sensing. Cambridge
University Press; 2nd edition.
 Verbyla, D, 1995: Satellite Remote Sensing of Natural Resources. CRC-
Press.
 ? What is remote sensing
 Remote – away
from or at a
distance
 Sensing – detecting
a property or
characteristic
 Remote Sensing
The term "remote
sensing," first used in the
United States in the
1950s by Ms. Evelyn
Pruitt of the U.S. Office
of Naval Research
Definitions
"Remote sensing is teaching us a
new way of seeing".

Remote sensing has been defined in

many ways.
Definition (1)
Remote sensing is
"the acquisition of
information about
an object, without
being in physical
contact with that
object"
Definition (2)
Remote sensing is "the ability to measure
the properties of an object without
touching it".
Definition (3)
Remote sensing can be defined as "the
collection of data about an object from
a distance. Humans and many other
types of animals accomplish this task
with aid of eyes or by the sense of
smell or hearing".
Definition (4)
Remote sensing is "the examination,
measurement, and analysis of an object
without being in contact with it".
Definition (5)
Remote sensing is "the science and art of
obtaining information about an object,
area, or phenomenon through the
analysis of data acquired by a device
not in contact with the object, area, or
phenomenon in question".
Definition (6)
Remote sensing is "the science (and to some
extent, art) of acquiring information about
the Earth's surface without actually being in
contact with it. This is done by sensing and
recording reflected or emitted energy and
processing, analyzing, and applying that
information".
Definition (7)
Remote sensing is by definition "the
science of gathering information about
phenomena using devices that are not
in contact with the object. Currently
remote sensing technologies include a
number of differing air and space borne
instruments that gather data about the
earth and its features".
 ‫اإلستشعار عن بعد‬
‫‪ ‬علم يختص بجمع المعلومات عن هدف‬
‫ما من مسافة بعيدة دون أن يكون هناك‬
‫اتصال مباشر بين الهدف وجهاز االلتقاط‬
‫وذلك باستخدام خواص الموجات‬
‫الكهرومغناطيسية المنبعثة أو المرتدة‬
‫أو المنعكسة‪.‬‬
Brief History of Remote
Sensing
 1839, the first
photographs.
 1849, used photography in
topographic mapping.
 1858, balloons were being
used to acquire
photography of large
areas.
1925-1945
 Mid 1930s, color photography.
 Aerial photography became
widespread during World War II, with
improved lenses and platform stability,
enemy positions and military
installations could be identified from
aircraft.
 Radar
1945-1960
 Cameras were launched on rockets as
this science expanded in the post-World
War II era.
 In 1957, the Russians launched the first
successful Earth satellite, Sputnik 1
 In 1958, the US launched its first
satellite, Explorer 1.
 In 1959, the first satellite with a
meteorological instrument (Vanguard 2)
was launched.
 In 1960, the first satellite images ever
made of the earth comes from the
TIROS 1
1960-1972
 This was the age of instrument development.
 In 1964, the Nimbus satellite series of
experimental meteorological remote sensing was
initiated.
 By 1966, meteorological satellites moved from
being experimental to being operational with the
introduction of the ESSA series of satellites which
included Automatic Picture.
 The Defense Meteorological Satellite Program
(DMSP) was started by the U.S. Air Force in 1966.
 1972, Landsat 1 (also referred to as Earth
Resources Technology Satellite.
present-1972
 1975: The Synchronous Meteorological Satellites.
 1976: Laser Geodynamic Satellite I.
 1978: The Heat Capacity Mapping Mission.
 1978: Seasat demonstrated techniques for global monitoring of
the Earth's oceans.
 1978: Nimbus 7, the final satellite in that series, was launched.
 1984: The Earth Radiation Budget (ERBE) satellite began its
study of how the Earth absorbs and reflects the Sun's energy.
 1991: The Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite (UARS) began
its study of the chemistry and physics of the Earth's atmosphere.
 Today, the GOES (Geostationary Operational Environmental
Satellite) system of satellites provides most of the remotely
sensed weather information for North America.
The element of the remote sensing
process

1) Energy Source or
Illumination
2) Radiation and the
Atmosphere
3) Interaction with the Target
4) Recording of Energy by the
Sensor
5) Transmission, Reception,
and Processing
6) Interpretation and Analysis
7) Application
Recording of Energy by
the Sensor
Active and Passive Remote Sensing
systems

 Passive: The sensor

records energy that
is reflected or
emitted from the
source, such as light
from the sun. This is
also the most
common type of
system.
Passive remote sensors
 Radiometer
 Imaging Radiometer
 Spectrometer
 Spectroradiometer
Active and Passive Remote Sensing
systems

 Active: where the

object is illuminated
by radiation
produced by the
sensors, such as
radar or microwaves.
Active remote sensors
 Radar (Radio Detection and Ranging)
 Scatterometer
 Lidar (Light Detection and Ranging)
Uses of Remote Sensing
 Weather: It is possible
now to get immediate
information on climate
and weather conditions
from remote sensing
satellites. Images over
time allow us to predict
weather behavior.
Uses of Remote Sensing
 Agriculture: Crop
mapping and yield
prediction; crop
damage due to
storm, drought or
disease and insect
outbreaks.
Uses of Remote Sensing
 Environmental
Impacts: Remote
Sensing to
determine oil spill
size, location,
direction and
magnitude of
Coastal oil spill, Wales, England
movement.
Uses of Remote Sensing
 Forestry Inventory:
Remote Sensing
used for forest
inventory, mapping
cut-overs, forest fire
mapping, species
identification.

Burned and burning forest near Norman Wells, NWT , Canada

Uses of Remote Sensing
 Geological Mapping:
Mapping faults, folds,
lineaments and rock
types.

Syncline/Anticline structures in the Applachians of Pennsylvania.

Principles of Object Identification(1)
 Shape: this
characteristic alone may
serve to identify many
objects. Examples
include the long linear
lines of highways, the
intersecting runways of
an airfield, the perfectly
rectangular shape of
buildings, or the
recognizable shape of an
outdoor baseball
diamond.
Principles of Object Identification(2)

 Size: noting the relative and absolute sizes

of objects is important in their
identification. The scale of the image
determines the absolute size of an object.
As a result, it is very important to recognize
the scale of the image to be analyzed.
Principles of Object Identification(3)

 Image Tone or Color: all objects reflect or

emit specific signatures of electromagnetic
radiation. In most cases, related types of
objects emit or reflect similar wavelengths of
radiation. Also, the types of recording device
and recording media produce images that are
reflective of their sensitivity to particular range
of radiation.
Principles of Object Identification(4)

 Pattern: many
objects arrange
themselves in typical
patterns. This is
especially true of
human-made
phenomena.
Principles of Object Identification(5)

 Shadow: shadows can sometimes be used to

get a different view of an object. For example,
an overhead photograph of a towering
smokestack or a radio transmission tower
normally presents an identification problem.
This difficulty can be over come by
photographing these objects at sun angles that
cast shadows. These shadows then display the
shape of the object on the ground. Shadows
can also be a problem
Principles of Object Identification(6)

 Texture: imaged objects display some degree of

coarseness or smoothness. This characteristic can
sometimes be useful in object interpretation. For
example, we would normally expect to see
textural differences when comparing an area of
grass with a field corn. Texture, just like object
size, is directly related to the scale of the image.
 Maps & Cartography

Maps have three main attributes:

•Scale
•Projection
•Symbolization
 Scale
Scale Representation: There are three ways to represent map
;scales
•as a Ratio or Representative Fraction (RF):
for example: 1:12,000 or 1/12,000
(NOTE that the Numerator and Denominator must be in the
same units, making the RF a unitless representation.)

•as a sentence demonstrating equivalence (verbal scale):

for example: 1 inch equals 12,000 inches

•as a Graphic or Bar Scale:

for example:
Map projections
Cylindrical Projection
Conic Projection
Planar Projection
Map Symbolization
?How is Energy Transferred
Electromagnetic radiation
The wavelength is the length
,of one wave cycle
Frequency
 Frequency refers to the number of
cycles of a wave passing a fixed point
per unit of time. Frequency is normally
measured in hertz (Hz),
Wavelength and frequency are related by
:the following formula
 Frequency,  is
inversely
proportional to
wavelength, 
 The longer the
wavelength, the
lower the
frequency, and
vice-versa.
Scattering
 Once electromagnetic radiation is generated,
it is propagated through the earth's
atmosphere almost at the speed of light in a
vacuum.
 Unlike a vacuum in which nothing happens,
however, the atmosphere may affect not only
the speed of radiation but also its
wavelength, intensity, spectral distribution,
and/or direction.
Scattering
Scatter differs from reflection in that the
direction associated with scattering is
unpredictable, whereas the direction of
reflection is predictable. There are essentially
three types of scattering:
• Rayleigh,
• Mie, and
• Non-selective.
 Atmospheric Scattering
Type of scattering is a function
of:
• the wavelength of the
incident radiant energy, and
• the size of the gas molecule,
dust particle, and/or water
vapor droplet encountered.
Rayleigh scattering
 Rayleigh scattering occurs when the diameter
of the matter (usually air molecules) are
many times smaller than the wavelength of
the incident electromagnetic radiation.
 The amount of scattering is inversely related
to the fourth power of the radiation's
wavelength. For example, blue light (0.4 m)
is scattered 16 times more than near-infrared
light (0.8 m).
Rayleigh scattering
 Rayleigh scattering is responsible for
the blue sky.

 Rayleigh scattering is responsible for

red sunsets.
Rayleigh Scattering

The intensity of
Rayleigh scattering
varies inversely
with the fourth
power of the
wavelength (-4).
Mie scattering
 Mie scattering takes place when there are
essentially spherical particles present in the
atmosphere with diameters approximately
equal to the wavelength of radiation being
considered.
 The amount of scatter is greater than
Rayleigh scatter and the wavelengths
scattered are longer.
Non-selective scattering
 Non-selective scattering is produced when
there are particles in the atmosphere several
times the diameter of the radiation being
transmitted.
 Scattering can severely reduce the information
content of remotely sensed data to the point
that the imagery looses contrast and it is
difficult to differentiate one object from
another.
Absorption
 Absorption is the process by which
radiant energy is absorbed and
converted into other forms of energy.
 the atmosphere does not absorb all of
the incident energy but transmits it
effectively. Parts of the spectrum that
transmit energy effectively are called
“atmospheric windows”.
Absorption of the Sun’s Incident Electromagnetic
Energy in the Region from 0.1 to 30 m by
Various Atmospheric Gases

window
 Reflectance
 Reflectance is the
process whereby
radiation “bounces off”
an object like a cloud
or the terrain.
 The angle of incidence
and the angle of
reflection are equal.
Index of Refraction
 The index of refraction (n) is a measure of the optical density of a
substance. This index is the ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum, c,
to the speed of light in a substance such as the atmosphere or water, cn
(Mulligan, 1980):

cc
nn 
ccnn
 The speed of light in a substance can never reach the speed of light in
a vacuum. Therefore, its index of refraction must always be greater
than 1. For example, the index of refraction for the atmosphere is
1.0002926 and 1.33 for water. Light travels more slowly through
water because of water’s higher density.
Snell’s Law

 Refraction can be described by Snell’s law, which states that for a

given frequency of light (we must use frequency since, unlike
wavelength, it does not change when the speed of light changes), the
product of the index of refraction and the sine of the angle between the
ray and a line normal to the interface is constant:

sin11  nn22sin
nn11sin sin22
 From the accompanying figure, we can see that a nonturbulent
atmosphere can be thought of as a series of layers of gases, each with a
slightly different density. Anytime energy is propagated through the
atmosphere for any appreciable distance at any angle other than
vertical, refraction occurs.
 Atmospheric Refraction

Refraction in three nonturbulent

atmospheric layers. The incident
energy is bent from its normal
trajectory as it travels from one
atmospheric layer to another.
Snell’s law can be used to predict
how much bending will take
place, based on a knowledge of
the angle of incidence () and the
index of refraction of each
atmospheric level, n1, n2, n3.
The element of the remote sensing
process

1) Energy Source or
Illumination
2) Radiation and the
Atmosphere
3) Interaction with the Target
4) Recording of Energy by the
Sensor
5) Transmission, Reception,
and Processing
6) Interpretation and Analysis
7) Application
Recording of Energy by
the Sensor
Planck’s Radiation Function
(Planck’s Law)

3
2hf
B f (T )  2
c exp(hf / kT )  1
Planck’s Radiation Function
(Planck’s Law)

2
2hc
B (T )  5
 exp(hc / kT )  1
k  Boltzmann' s constant  1.3806  10 -16 erg deg 1

h  Planck's constant  6.6262  10-27 erg sec

Blackbody Radiation Curves
Rayleigh – Jeans
Approximation

For microwave hf << kT

2
2 f kT
B f (T )  2
c
 Stephen Boltzmann Law
The total emitted radiation from a blackbody is
proportional to the fourth power of its absolute
temperature. This is known as the Stefan-Boltzmann
:law and is expressed as


B (T )   B (T )d  bT 4

0
Where
b  the Stefan - Boltzmann constant  5.67  10 5 erg cm -2 sec -1 deg -4
Wein’s Displacement Law

B (T ) a

0  max 
T
where
a  constant  2897  deg

.T is the absolute temperature in kelvin

Kirchoff’s Law

   a
For a blackbody

For a blackbody For a gray body

   a  1    a  1
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 140ÞE
140ÞE 180ÞE
180ÞE 140ÞW 100ÞW
140ÞW 100ÞW 60ÞW
60ÞW 20ÞW
20ÞW 20ÞE
20ÞE

GOES
GOES GOES
GOES
West
West East
East

GOES
GOES GOES
GOES Useful
UsefulGOES
GOES
West
West East
East coverage
coverage

Communication
Communication
range
range