Consumer Electronics

Unit 1
Components used in Basic Audio systems
Microphone: Sound is produced when there is a vibration in the
atmosphere. This vibration disturbs the air, causing air particles to
bounce off other air particles, carrying the vibration throughout. We
hear these changes in air pressure by translating the change to
electrical signals that the brain can process.
A transducer use to convert these sound vibrations into
electrical signal is called Microphone.
Amplifier: Most steps of the sound process, such as the microphone
and recorder require very little electrical current to be
produced. The last step of the process, moving the speaker cone, does
require more of a boost in current for the audio signal. This boost
has to preserve the same pattern without any distortion of the
original signal. The boost is created by an amplifier. The amplifier's
sole purpose to produce a more powerful audio signal in order to
be heard through a speaker. Although amplifiers have just a simple
purpose, the components that make them can be very complex.
Loudspeaker: A loudspeaker (or "speaker", or in the early days of
radio "loud-speaker") is an electroacoustic transducer that produces
sound in response to an electrical audio signal input. In other
words, speakers convert electrical signals into audible signals.
PUBLIC ADDRESS SYSTEM (PA SYSTEM):
It is an electroacoustic system, in which sound is first converted into
electrical signals by a microphone. The electrical audio signals are
amplified, processed & fed to another transducer, the loudspeaker,
which converts the audio signals into sound waves. A block diagram of
a basic PA system is shown in fig. below. The function of each block of
PA system is described below.
Microphone: It picks up sound wave & converts them into electrical
variations, called audio signals. Generally, amplifiers have provision of 2
or more microphones & in addition, an auxiliary input for tape/record
player.
Mixer: The output of microphones is fed to mixer stage. The function of
mixer stage is to effectively isolate different channels from each other
before feeding to the main amplifier. It can be either a built-in unit or a
separate pluggable unit.
Voltage amplifier: It is an amplifier which further amplifies the output
of the mixer.
Processing circuit: These circuits have ‘Master gain control’ & tone
controls (Bass/Treble controls).
Driver amplifier: It gives voltage amplification to the signal to such an
extent that when fed to the next stage (power amplifier stage), the
internal resistance of that stage is reduced. Thus it drives the power
amplifier to give more power.
Power amplifier: It gives desired power amplification to the signal. It
uses push pull type of circuit in general, so that the even harmonics are
eliminated from the output, & the transformer core does not get
saturated. The output of power amplifier is connected to the loudspeaker
through matching transformer to match the low impedance of the
loudspeaker for maximum transfer of power.
Loudspeaker: A loudspeaker is an electroacoustic transducer that
produces sound in response to an electrical audio signal input. In other
words, speakers convert electrical signals into audible signals.
HI-FI AUDIO AMPLIFIER SYSTEM
High fidelity sound can be obtained from the recorded ‘stereo sounds’
(stereo taps or live stereo system from microphones.). The stereo signal
is fed to two independent amplification channels through tape-mic
switch. The Hi-fi system consists of:
✓ Pre Amplifier (LNA)
✓ Equalizer
✓ Amplifier
✓ Matching circuit &
✓ Loud speaker
Pre Amplifier (LNA): This is a low noise high gain amplifier which
amplifies the weak signal coming from microphones with low noise.
This increases the signal strength as well as SNR of system.

Equalizer: Equalizer is utilized for adjusting frequency for providing

boost & cut at a particular frequency. This improves frequency response
& hence selectivity & quality factor of system.

Amplifier: It is a power amplifier for increasing strength of the signal.

This is used to drive the loudspeaker with sufficient signal strength.
Matching circuit: The primary winding of transformer is connected to output of
power amplifier & secondary winding is connected to loudspeaker. This transformer
provides impedance matching for maximum power transfer of loudspeaker.

Balance control: Two amplifiers of a stereo system, although independent of each

other, are built as matched pair to give equal output for the same input. In spite of the
two amplifiers being identical, there may be variations in the output of each channel
due to variations in the characteristics of transistors & ICs and positioning of
loudspeaker & furnishing with respect to the listener. The circuit used is called
BALANCE CONTROL.

Loudspeaker: A loudspeaker is an electroacoustic transducer that produces sound in

response to an electrical audio signal input. In other words, speakers convert
electrical signals into audible signals.
 What is a microphone?
A microphone is a transducer that converts
acoustic energy to electrical energy.
It has many uses in today's world from
medical to musical recording.
It reacts to a pressure input by use of a
diaphragm.
 The Invention of the Microphone
1876 – Alexander Graham Bell
1878 – Hughes (First use of term ‘microphone’) (actually, a carbon
microphone )

- Used for telephony

- Use pressure which get converted to resistance
- And done well since then
CHARACTERISTICS OF A MICROPHONE
The quality of a microphone is determined by the following
characteristics:
• Sensitivity
• Signal-to-noise ratio
• Frequency response
• Distortion
• Directivity
• Output impedance
Microphone
1. Types
Pressure Type
2. Velocity Type
 Pressure Type Microphone

• Diaphragm has only one surface exposed to sound waves.

• Output corresponds to instantaneous pressure of the incident
sound wave.
 Pressure Microphone
1. Carbon Microphone
2. Crystal Microphone
3. Dynamic Microphone
4. Capacitor
Sr. No. Parameter Carbon Moving coil Crystal Condenser

1 Sensitivity Very high High Moderately high Very low

2 Frequency response 50 Hz to 5 kHz 50 Hz to 5 kHz 80 Hz to 6.5KHz 40 Hz to 15 kHz

3 Distortion High (10%) Low (5%) Very low (1%) Very low (1%)

4 Directivity pattern Omni-directional Omni- directional Omni-directional Omni-directional

5 Output impedance Moderate about 150 Low (30-100 Ω) High about 100 Very high about
Ω ΚΩ 100 Μ Ω

6 Effect of temp. and Yes No Yes No

humidity
7 DC bias supply External Not required Not required External about
200V
8 Applications Telephones, PA systems Home recording, Calibration,
portable handsets mobile recording in the
communication studios
Carbon Microphone
• The carbon microphone was widely used for many years being
one of the earliest reliable microphones.
• The carbon microphone is not widely used these days, but it has
been included here, more for the sake of interest and
completeness
• The carbon microphone was developed in the 1870s by
Englishman David Edward Hughes. It was the first reliable form of
microphone and it was widely used for many years before being
supplanted by other types that gave much higher levels of
performance.
Principle: When fine carbon granules enclosed in a case are
subjected to variations of pressure, the resistance of the granules
changes. When the granules are compressed, their resistance
decreases. When loosened, their resistance increases. This change in
resistance of granules changes the current in the circuit. This change
in current causes a change in terminal voltage.
Construction: The construction of a carbon microphone is shown in
Fig. Fine carbon granules are enclosed between two metal plates.
Diaphragm is attached to a movable metal plate through a metal
piston or plunger. The other metal plate is fixed and is insulated from
the diaphragm. A protective cover with holes is used to protect the
unit. A battery is connected between two metal plates. When the load
is connected, current flows through the carbon granules and the load.
Path of the current passes from the +ve battery terminal through the
fixed plate, the resistance of carbon granules, movable metal plate,
metal casing, and output transformer, as shown in Fig. The purpose of
the output transformer is to eliminate the dc content of the
microphone.
Functioning: When sound waves strike the diaphragm, it moves to
and fro. During compression condition, it presses the carbon
granules and during rarefaction, it loosens them. When carbon
granules are pressed, the resistance decreases and hence the current
through the circuit increases. When carbon granules loosen, the
resistance increases, decreasing the current through the circuit. In
the absence of sound, a steady current flows. Thus, sound waves
superimpose a varying current or audio current on the steady dc
current.
Reason:-Carbon granules change resistance when compressed
because the granules are pushed closer together, which improves
electrical contact and lowers resistance.
Characteristics of a Carbon Microphone
Sensitivity Very high, about 20 dB below 1 V. the output voltage is about 100 mV.
signal-to-noise Ratio Poor. Random variation of resistance of carbon granules generates a
continuous hiss.
Frequency Response Carbon microphones have a frequency response of 200Hz to 5000 Hz,
and therefore are unsuitable for high fidelity work. The resonance peak is at 2000 Hz and
overall frequency bandwidth is usually up to 5 kHz.
Distortion High. The content is rich in harmonics unless variation in resistance (or) is a very
small percentage of steady resistance R. Distortion is of the order of 10%. Also, carbon
granules have a tendency to stick to each other which further increases the distortion.
Directivity A carbon microphone is substantially omnidirectional. However, high frequency
response over 300 Hz falls beyond an angle of 40° from the front of the microphone.
Output Impedance It is about 50-200 Ω
The basic concept behind the carbon microphone is the fact that when carbon
granules are compressed their resistance decreases. This occurs because the
granules come into better contact with each other when they are pushed together
by the higher pressure.
The carbon microphone comprises carbon granules that are contained within a
small contained that is covered with a thin metal diaphragm. A battery is also
required to cause a current to flow through the microphone.
When sound waves strike the carbon microphone diaphragm it vibrates,
exerting a varying pressure onto the carbon. These varying pressure levels are
translated into varying levels of resistance, which in turn vary the current
passing through the microphone
The varying current can be passed through a transformer or a capacitor to
enable it to be used within a telephone, or by some form of amplifier.
The frequency response of the carbon microphone, however, is limited to a
narrow range, and the device produces significant electrical noise. Often the
microphone would produce a form of crackling noise which could be
eliminated by shaking it or giving it a small sharp knock. This would shake the
carbon granules and enable them to produce a more steady current.
Carbon microphones were an ideal choice of microphone in the early days of the
telephone. They were widely used in telephone applications because they gave a
high output which meant no amplification was used.
Carbon microphones were used in telephones like this vintage British GPO 300
series telephone
Carbon microphone advantages
• High output
• Simple principle & construction
• Cheap and simple to manufacture
• Very rugged
• Good sensitivity
Carbon microphone disadvantages
• Very noisy - high background noise and on occasions it would crackle
Poor frequency response
• Requires battery or other supply for operation
• Limited frequency response
• Not suitable for high fidelity work
• Poor signal to noise ratio

The carbon microphone has a number of advantages, but today the

disadvantages normally outweigh the positives and as a result they are rarely
used.
Moving Coil Microphone
Moving Coil Microphone works on Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction,
which states that, "when a conductor moves in a magnetic field it cuts the flux line
and an emf is generated."
Principle
A moving coil microphone works on the principle of induced emf.
The variations of sound pressure cause the motion of a coil in the
magnetic field. Thus an emf is induced in the moving coil. It is also
known as a dynamic microphone.

Due to similarity in construction, a moving coil loudspeaker can also work as a

moving-coil microphone. The same unit is often used both as a microphone and
loudspeaker in office intercom systems.
Construction
The moving coil microphone has a permanent magnet, which has a central pole (South
Pole) and another pole (North Pole). This type of magnet gives a uniform magnetic field
between the pole pieces.
The diaphragm is a thin circular sheet of non-magnetic material and is
lightweight. It is fixed to the body of the magnet with the help of springs. The springs
provide compliance to the motion of a diaphragm and coil assembly provides the
inductive effect.
The coil is wound on a cardboard cylinder which is attached to the diaphragm.
The coil is a single-layered, thin enameled wire.
A protective cover of the metal grill is used to protect the diaphragm and coil
assembly. A silk cloth partition is used to separate the upper chamber from the lower
chamber. A small tube is used in the lower chamber to give access to the free
atmosphere.
The mass of the diaphragm restricts the high audio frequency output, and the
stiffness caused by the springs compliance restricts the low audio frequency output.
Characteristics/Features
Sensitivity about 90 dB below 1 V when sound pressure is 0.1Pa.
signal-to-noise Ratio about 25dB
Frequency Response nearly flat in the 40Hz to 8000Hz range
Distortion Distortion is of the order of 5%.
Directivity omnidirectional microphone
Output Impedance It is about 30-40 Ω
Moving coil microphone advantages
• Mechanically robust
• Not affected by weather
• Cheap
Moving coil microphone disadvantages
• It has to be kept within 25cm distance from source of sound
• Its weight is considerable because of heavy magnet

Applications
Public address system and broadcast studios
Crystal Microphone:
A crystal microphone is based on the principle of piezoelectric Effect, which
produces difference of potential between the opposite faces of some crystals when
these are subjected to mechanical pressure. The crystals which show this effect are
quartz, tourmaline, rochelle salt and ceramic. Rochelle salt has high piezoelectric
effect but is susceptible to moisture. Also, it cannot withstand high temperature of
more than 50°C in outdoor use. Quartz and tourmaline have low piezoelectric
effect. Ceramic is most suitable for crystal microphones as it is not susceptible to
moisture and can also withstand high temperatures up to 100° C.
When pressure is applied to the crystal, it deforms and momentary displacement of
charge takes place within the crystal structure. This creates a difference of potential
between its two surfaces.
Two thin crystal slices, suitably cut, are placed in an insulating holder with an air space
between them. A large number of such elements are combined to increase the emf. A
diaphragm, made of aluminium, is attached to the crystal surface through a push rod. The
whole unit is encased in a protective case. There is a protective mesh cover (not shown in
the figure) over the diaphragm. Functioning When there is a sound wave of compression, it
compresses the crystal. In the case of rarefaction, the converse takes place and the crystal is
extended and is under tension. Due to this compression and extension, a varying potential
difference is generated which is proportional to the mechanical pressure applied to the
crystal by the sound waves (it is, therefore, 'pressure microphone'). The crystal elements are
connected in such a way that the potential differences developed in the elements are added
up and we get a good voltage output (about 50 mV) for feeding to the amplifier.
Crystal Microphone
Construction
The crystal is in the form of a bimorph crystal unit (two plates put together form the unit).
Metal foils are attached to the crystal surfaces to serve as terminals. A diaphragm, generally
made of aluminium is held between supports through springs. The diaphragm is connected
to the bimorph through a push rod shows the construction.

Working
When sound waves impringe on the diaphragm, it vibrates. These vibrations are picked up
by the bimorph element and a voltage is developed across its faces. The voltage developed is
proportional to pressure of sound waves. This voltage is generally fed to an amplifier

Advantage
Good sensitivity, high signal to noise ratio, low distortion. small size, omni directional
characteristics, low cost.

Disadvantage
Less rugged than moving coil, cannot withstand high temperature. Very low frequency
sound waves are attenuated. It is affected by moisture.
Application
Home recording, mobile communication systems, amateur communication.
Ribbon Microphone
Ribbon microphone is a type of dynamic microphone that uses a thin electrically
conducting ribbon placed between the poles of a magnet
Ribbon microphones are typically bidirectional
Principle
Its principle is exactly the same as that of moving coil microphone.
However instead of diaphragm and coil (of moving coil microphone)
this microphone has an aluminum ribbon which acts as a diaphragm
as well as coil. When sound waves strike the ribbon, as emf is induced
in it. It is a velocity microphone because induced emf is proportional
to velocity of ribbon. Moreover the working depends on pressure of
sound waves. Hence it is a pressure microphone.
Construction
The permanent magnet has extended pole pieces. Between the pole pieces is placed
the aluminium ribbon in which the emf is induced. A stepup transformer is inbuilt
in the microphone case.

Working
The ribbon acts as a diaphragm. When sound waves strike it, it vibrates. Because of this
motion an emf proportional to velocity of ribbon is induced in it. This voltage is stepped
up by the transformer and appears at the output terminals.
Features
• The sensitivity of ribbon microphone is low, about 3 µV or 110 dB below 1 V for a
sound pressure of 0.1 Pa. However this voltage is stepped upto about 30 times
by stepup transformer.
• Because of low mass of ribbon, the frequency response is very good and is almost
flat from about 20 Hz to about 12000 Hz.
• Its output impedance is very low, generally less than 0.5 ohm. The stepup
transformer helps in increasing the output impedance by about 900 times.
• Sound pressure can be applied to the ribbon from front as well as back. Therefore,
it is a bidirectional microphone
• Its distortion is less than 1%.
• It gives good transient response.
• They don’t need internal or external power to operate
• They are somewhat fragile and require care while operating
• They are moderately inexpensive
Advantage
The main advantages of ribbon microphone are good frequency response,
bidirectional behaviour, good transient response and that it does not need any
external bias for its working.

Disadvantage
It is a delicate and expensive microphone. It can be easily damaged due to slight
mishandling. Its sensitivity is low.

Application
Dramas, music, radio broadcast etc. Its bidirectional feature allows the participants of a
drama to talk face to face.
Condensor Microphone
Condensor Microphone also known as omnidirectional microphones are a type of
microphone that are sensitive to sound coming from multiple directions.
Condenser microphones are good for group discussions and stages as they can
pick up sound from several directions, but can also pick up significant amounts
of background noise if used in a noisy environment.
Principle
The capacitance of a parallel plate air capacitor is inversely
proportional to the distance between the plates i.e.

C = capacitance, farads
ε = permittivity of free space i.e. 8.85 x 10-12 * F / m
d = distance between plates, m
A = area of plate m2
As d changes due to pressure of sound waves, capacitance changes.
This change in capacitance causes a change in the frequency of an
oscillatory circuit (capacitor is a part of the oscillatory circuit). This
change in frequency is a measure of the pressure of sound waves.
Alternatively this change in capacitance causes successive charging
and discharging currents in a resistance. These currents produce
oscillating voltage across the resistance. This voltage is a measure of
the pressure of sound waves.
Construction:
Fig shows the construction of a capacitance microphone. It consists
of a light weight diaphragm about 0.0025 cm thick made of duralumin
It is separated by about 0.005 cm from another metal plate which is
fixed and is known as back plate. It is connected in series with a
resistance R across a battery of about 150 V. The output voltage
across R is fed to an amplifier.
 Working:
As sound waves impinge on the diaphragm, the distance between the
diaphragm and back plate changes and thus the capacitance between
the plates changes. Charging and discharging currents flow in the
circuit causing a change in voltage across resistance R. This voltage is
amplified by the amplifier. Thus output voltage of the amplifier varies
with the change in pressure of sound waves. It is a pressure
microphone since output is proportional to pressure of sound waves.
Advantages:
High output impedance, good frequency response, low distortion,
high signal to noise ratio.

Disadvantages:
Delicate, costly (due to the need of battery and amplifier circuit).
Its working is affected by heat and moisture

Applications:
Used as a standard microphone for calibration of other
microphones. Also used in high fidelity sound recording and in
sound meter.
CD Player
A CD player is an electronic device that plays audio compact discs, which are
a digital optical disc data storage format. CD players were first sold to consumers
in 1982. It plays the CD at the correct speed and accurately converts digital data of
the CD back into the analogue form by means of a reflected laser beam. The laser
beam is used to reproduce the signals recorded on the disk surface. A number of
servo systems are used to focus, track, and rotate the disk. The CD player operates
in a specific order, with the sequence of operations controlled by a system built
around integrated circuits (ICs).

CDs typically contain recordings of audio material such as music or audio books.
CD players may be part of home stereo systems, car audio systems, personal
computers, or portable CD players such as CD boom boxes. Most CD players
produce an output signal via a headphone jack or RCA jacks.
Physical details of CD
 The compact disc consist of polycarbonate substrate 120mm in diameter
1.2mm in thickness.
 The polycarbonate layer contains microscopic pits. Each pit is 100nm in
depth & 500nm in width.
 The space between two pits is called lands.
 The polycarbonate substrate is covered by reflective aluminium or gold to
increase reflectivity.
 The reflective surface is protected by a layer of lacquer to prevent oxidation.
CD consists of four layers:
• A basic layer made of a Polycarbonate plastic.
• A thin layer of Aluminum coating over the plastic layer.
• An Acrylic Sheet to protect the aluminum coating.
• A label to write information of the CD.
Advantages of Compact Disc (CD) over Cassettes:
CD makes use of digital storage technique & hence all the advantages of digital
storage are applicable to CD.
1. When information is stored in the digital format, the problem of signal
loss or disturbance in the signal is completely eliminated.
2. On CD the left & right channel information are stored separately one
after another in fixed time interval.
3. Cross talk is eliminated between two channels & provides a real stereo output.
4. The capacity of storage on CD is high.
5. Available in small size.
6. Cost is less.
7. Makes use of interleaving process for error correction & detection.