Somali National University (SNU)

Remote Sensing(RS)

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Lecturer @ SNU: Abdirizak Geyre
Chapter . Content
Coordinate systems
1. Introduction
2. Geographic coordinate system
3. Projected coordinate system
4. Approximation of the earth
5. Datum
6. UTM grid system
7. Spatial data errors
8. Spatial data models
9. Attribute data input and management
10. Database management
11. Spatial interpolation
 Coordinate systems
Coordinate systems is a reference system for
identifying locations on the curved surface of the
earth.
Locations on the earth’s surface are measured in
angular units from the center of the earth relative
to two planes.
The planes defined by the Equator and prime
meridian (which crosses Greenwich England).
Location is defined by two values: a latitudinal
value and longitudinal value
 Cont…
 The purpose is to provide a common basis for communication
about a particular place or area on the earth's surface.

 The most critical issue in dealing with coordinate systems is

knowing what the projection is and having the correct
coordinate system information associated with a dataset.

 There are two types of coordinate systems—geographic and

projected coordinate system.

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 1. Geographic Coordinate System
 The geographic coordinate system is the location reference system for spatial
features on the earth’s surface.
 The geographic coordinate system is defined by longitude and latitude.
 Both longitude and latitude are angular measures:
 longitude measures the angel east or west from the prime meridian, and
 latitude measures the angel north or south of the equatorial plane.
• The angles often are
measured in degrees.
 Latitude and longitude values are traditionally measured
either in decimal degrees or in degrees, minutes, and seconds
(DMS).
 Latitude values are measured relative to the equator and range
from -90° at the South Pole to +90° at the North Pole. Using
the equator as 0o latitude
 Longitude values are measured relative to the prime meridian.
They range from -180° when traveling west to 180° when
traveling east.
 The prime meridian and the equator serve as the baselines of
the geographic coordinate system.
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The angular measures of longitude and latitude may be expressed in
degrees-minutes-seconds (DMS), decimal degrees (DD), or radians
(rad). Radians are typically used in computer programs. One
rad=57.2958o , one degree=0.01745 rad.
North Pole

Prime
a Meridian

Equator

Equator

A longitude reading is represented by a on the left, and a

latitude reading is represented by b on the right. Both
longitude and latitude readings are angular measures.
Example
• Given that 1 degree equals 60 minutes and minute equals 60 second,
we can convert between DMS and DD the following latitude value
• 45 52’30”
decimal degrees (DD) = (45+52/60+30/3600)
• Would be 45.875
2- Projected coordinate system
 The process of projection transforms the spherical Earth’s
surface to a plane. The outcome of this transformation is a map
projection.
 A projected coordinate system is defined on a flat, two-
dimensional surface.

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Map Projection provides a couple of distinctive advantages.

First, a map projection allows us to use two dimensional maps.

Second, a projection allows us to work with plane or projected

coordinates rather than longitude and latitude values.

• Computations with geographic coordinates are more complex and

yield less accurate distance measurement.

map projections can be grouped by their projection surfaces into:

Cylindrical Projection: if it can be constructed using a cylinder

Conic Projection: if using a cone

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Azimuthal Projection: if using a plane
Azimuthal Projection

Cylindrical Projection

Conic Projection
 Approximation of the Earth

 The first step to map spatial features on the earth’s surface is to select a model that approximates
the shape and size of the earth. The simplest model is a sphere, which is typically used in discussing
map projections. But the earth is not a perfect sphere: the earth is wider along the equator than
between the poles. Therefore a better approximation to the shape of the earth is a spheroid, also
called ellipsoid, an ellipse rotated about its minor axis.

 A spheroid has its major axis (a) along the equator and its minor axis (b) connecting the poles. A
parameter called the flattening (f), defined by (a-b)/a, measures the difference between the two
axes of a spheroid. Geographic coordinates based on spheroid are known as geodetic coordinates,
which are the basis for all mapping systems.
 The geoid, an even closer approximation of the earth, has an irregular surface, which is affected by
irregularities in the density of the earth’s crust and mantle. The geoid surface is treated as the surface of
mean sea level, which is important for measuring elevations or heights. For example, elevation readings
from a GPS receiver are measured from the surface of geoid.
 DATUM

 A datum is a mathematical model of the earth, which serves as the reference or base for
calculating the geographic coordinates of a location. The definition of a datum consists of an
origin, the parameters of the spheroid selected for the computations, and the separation of
the spheroid and the earth at the origin. Many countries have developed their own datums
for local surveys. Among these local datums are the European Datum, the Australian
Geodetic Datum, the Tokiyo Datum and the Indian Datum.
 Until the late 1980s, Clarke 1866, a ground measured spheroid, was the standard spheroid
for mapping in the United States. Clarke 1866’s semi major axis (equatorial radius) and semi
minor axis (polar radius) measure 6378206.4 meters and 6356583.8 meters respectively,
with the flattening of 1/294.979. NAD27 (North American Datum of 1927) is a local datum
based on the Clarke 1866 spheroid, with its origin at Meades Ranch in Kansas.
In 1986 the National Geodetic Survey (NGS) introduces NAD83 (North
American Datum of 1983), an earth centered (also called geo-centered) datum
based on the GRS (Geodetic Reference System 1980) spheroid. GRS80’s semi
major axis and semi minor axis measure 6378137.0 meters and 6356752.3
meters respectively, with the flattening of 1/298.257. In the case of GRS80,
the shape and size of the earth were determined through measurements
made by Doppler satellite observations.

WGS84 (World Geodetic System 1984) is a reference system or datum established by the
National Imagery and Mapping Agency (NIMA, now the National Geospatial-Intelligence
Agency or NGA) of the U.S. Department of Defense (Kumar 1993). WGS84 agrees with
GRS80 in terms of measures of the semi major and semi minor axes. But WGS84 has a set
of primary and secondary parameters. The primary parameters define the shape and size of
the earth, whereas the secondary parameters refer to local datums used in different
countries. WGS84 is the datum for GPS readings. The satellites used by GPS send their
positions in WGS84 coordinates and all calculations internal to GPS receivers are based on
WGS84.
 The Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) Grid System
The UTM grid system divides the Earth’s surface between 84o N and 80o S into 60 zones.
Each zone covers 60 of longitude and is numbered sequentially with zone 1 beginning at
180o W. Each zone is further divided into the northern and southern hemisphere. The
designation of a UTM zone therefore carries a number and letter.
 SPATIAL DATA ERRORS
SOURCES OF ERRORS: Errors in GIS data may be categorized as:
> Conceptual Errors
> Sources Data Errors
> Data Encoding Errors
> Data Editing and Conversion Errors
> Data Processing and Analysis Errors, and
> Data Output Errors
Conceptual Errors:
Errors arise from our understanding of real world and how it is modeled.
Perception of reality varies from person to person, and ultimately this affects the GIS
data.
Adopted GIS model need simplification and simplification will introduce errors of
generalization, completeness, and consistency.
Sources Data Errors:
Errors in survey data can be due to observational errors, instrumental errors, and
personal errors.
Errors can be due to the wrong spatial referencing of aerial photography and remote
sensing data, which ultimately mistakes in classification and as well as interpretation.
The temporal changes introduces errors due to time and date of data acquisition.
Maps contain errors in both spatial as well as attribute data caused by human or
equipment failings.
Data Encoding Errors:
The process of transferring the data collected through different sources, into a GIS format
is referred to as data encoding. Data encoding is probably the greatest sources of error.
Digitizing a map is one of the process of data encoding in GIS. It can be done by manually
or automatically. Most of the digitization work is done manually involving human
judgment and limitations.
Errors are also introduced due to incorrect registration of map document before the
digitization.
Data Editing and Conversion Errors:
Digitizing is never done without errors and always it requires editing and cleaning. It is
difficult to locate the errors precisely and remove them, but many of them can be
removed by careful scrutiny of data.
When dealing with a raster GIS, a different problem arises when using the automated
techniques for cleaning. In Raster GIS, the noise, also referred as misclassification of cells,
can be either regular form which is easier to identify or scattered randomly, it is difficult
to locate. The noise errors are rectified by employing filters, which reclassify single cell or
group of cells by matching them with general trends in the data.
After editing and cleaning data, it is required to convert vector data to raster data or vice
versa. The transform of a GIS database from one software package to another can lead to
errors usually termed as mechanical errors.
Data Processing and Analysis of Errors:
 Before processing and analysis of GIS data, the GIS users must ensure the followings:
 The data are suitable and relevant for analysis
 The data sets are compatible
 The technique to be employed is appropriate
GIS data processes that can introduce errors are mainly classification of data, aggregation
or disaggregation of area data, and data integration by overlay techniques.
A common error arising due to overlaying two polygon maps is slivers.
Data Output Errors:
 Due to inaccuracies in the GIS database and errors resulting in manipulation and analysis
of data, it is inevitable that all GIS output will have inaccuracies, the extent depending on
attention and care taken at all stages starting from construction, manipulation, and
analysis of GIS database.
 SPATIAL DATA MODELS
The ways of representing data are known as data models. The data model represents the
linkage between real world domain of geographical data and the computer. The process of
linkage involves:
1. Identifying the spatial features from the real world that are of interest in the context to an application
and choosing how to represent them in a conceptual model.
2. Representing the conceptual model by an appropriate data model by choosing between vector and raster
approach, and
3. Selecting an appropriate spatial data structure to store the model within the computer.
The spatial data structure, which is the core of the model, is the physical way in which
entities are coded for the purpose of storage and manipulation. Real-world features can be
represented as
Object-> are discrete and definite, example: buildings, roads, cities and forests
Phenomena-> are distributed continuously over a large area, such as population,
temperature, rainfall.
Consequently there can be two following distinct approaches of representing the real-world
in geographic database:
1. Object based model.
2. Field-based model.
Object Based Model:
The geographic space is treated to be filled by discrete and identifiable objects. An object
which is a spatial features, has identifiable boundaries, relevance to some intended
application, and can be described by one or more characteristics known as attributes. This
model may be classified as:
1. Exact object > represent discrete features, such as buildings, roads, etc.
2. Inexact object > exhibits identifiable boundaries, but not well defined. Change
gradually across the boundaries between neighboring spatial objects. Soil types, forest land
are the example of inexact object.
Data in object based model > obtained by field surveying or photogrammetric method,
maps, Aerial photography, remote sensing. Spatial objects are represented as geographical
elements of points, lines and areas.
Field-Based Model:
The field-based model treats geographic space as populated by one or more spatial
phenomena of real world features varying continuously over space with no obvious or
specific extent.
Data for spatial phenomena structured as fields, can be acquired either directly or indirectly
by aerial photography, remote sensing, map scanning and field measurements made at
selected or sampled locations, such as topographic data for triangulated irregular network
(TIN).
Indirect data acquisition methods by applying mathematical functions such as interpolation,
reclassification or resampling, to the measurements made at selected locations. Example,
Contours and Digital Elevation Model (DEM).
Spatial phenomena are represented as surfaces, which can be either in form of regular
tessellations or irregular tessellations.
Object based spatial database is generally called vector data model and field based spatial
database is called raster data model.
 Attribute Data Input and Management

Attribute Data in GIS:

Attribute data are stored in tables. An attribute table is organized by row and column. Each
row represents a spatial feature, each column describes a characteristics, and the
interaction of a column and a row shows the value of a particular characteristics for a
particular feature. A row is also called a record, and a column is also called a field or an
item.

Label ID pH Depth Fertility

1 6.8 12 High
2 4.5 4.8 Low
Type of Attribute Table:
There are two types of attribute tables. The first type is-
Feature attribute table : Which access to the spatial data. Every vector data set must have a
feature attribute table. In the case of georelational data model , the feature attribute table
uses the feature ID to link to the feature’s geometry. In case of the object-based data model,
the feature attribute table has a field that stores the feature’s geometry. Features attribute
table also have default fields that summarize the feature geometries such as length for the
line features and area and perimeter for the area features.

The second type of attribute table is -

Non-spatial attribute table: meaning that the table does not have direct access to the
geometry of features but has a field that can link the table to the feature attribute table
whenever necessary. Table of non-spatial data may exist as delimited text files, dBASE files,
Excel files, Access files, or files managed by database software packages such as Oracle,
Informix, Sybase, SQL server, and IMB DB2.
Database Management:
The presence of feature attribute and non-spatial data tables means that a GIS requires a
database management system (DBMS) to manage these tables. A DBMS is a software
package that enables to build and manipulate a database. A DBMS provides tools for data
input, search, retrieval, manipulation, and output. Most commercial GIS packages include
database management tools for local databases. For example, as of version 9.1, ArcGIS
Desktop uses Microsoft Access for local database management system.
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