Individual Assignment (10%)

1. Water cycle

2. Water harvesting techniques

3. Influence of the water cycle on soil erosion
Instructions
- Use readable hand writing
- Maximum of 5 pages, including the cover page

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 Chapter Three
Water Erosion and Control

2
3.1. Forms of Water Erosion
 Depending upon the degree of erosion and its
location, water erosion is further classified as;
- raindrop erosion,
- sheet erosion,
- rill erosion,
- gully erosion, and
- riverbank erosion

3
1. Raindrop erosion
 is also known as splash erosion. It is the first
stage of water erosion.
 It results from soil splash caused by the impact
of falling raindrops.
 About 95% of soil is splashed by falling rain
drops while runoff water erodes less than 5% of
the soil.
4
2. Sheet (inter-rill) erosion
 when rainfall exceeds the infiltration rate of the soil, water
starts flowing in thin more or less even or discontinues film
over the ground.
 The runoff flows along a sheet of more or less uniform depth.
 Under such conditions, there occurs reactively uniform
removal of soil from all parts of the area having a similar
degree of slope
 This moderately uniform removal of soil by the action of
rainfall and runoff is called sheet/ inter rill erosion.
 Rarely seen/hard to distinguish but accounts for large
volumes of soil loss.
5
 Con't...
 Farmers may hardly notice sheet erosion partly because of
the tillage operation.
 The cumulative effect of sheet/inter rill erosion over a few
ten years would be responsible for the disappearance of the
most fertile part of the top soil.
 Sheet erosion is often only recognized when eroded soil is
deposited along a fence line, on lower fields, and when sub-
soil materials emerge on the upper soil surface.
 Typically results in the loss of the finest soil particles which
contain the bulk of the available nutrients and organic matter.
 The accumulation of soil and crop debris at the lower end
of this field is an indicator of sheet erosion.

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3. Rill erosion
 It is sometimes called micro-channel erosion.

 When the velocity of runoff exceeds 25 cm sheet erosion will then

become rill erosion as runoff start digging in to the soil and
concentrate its flow in small channels.
 Rill erosion is the formation of shallow channels that can be
smoothened out by normal cultivation. It is regarded as a
transition/intermediate stage between sheet erosion and gully.
 The channels form up to 30 cm deep.

 The distinct path where the soil has been washed away by
surface water runoff is an indicator of rill erosion.
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4. Gully erosion
 As the volume of concentrated water increase and attains
more velocity on slope; it enlarges the rills into gullies.
 Rills become so deep that ground can not be
smoothened out by normal agricultural operation.
 It is defined as the erosion of the soil by flowing water in
a well-defined channel and it is readily observable in the
field because of its striking morphological expression on
the landscape.
 It is removal of soil by excessive concentration of
running water, resulting in the formation of channels
ranging in size above 30cm.
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 Con't...
 It is an environmental problem.

 It can not be altered by normal tillage operations.

 Gully erosion is responsible for removing vast

amounts of soil, irreversibly destroying farmland,
roads and bridges and
 reducing water quality by increasing the sediment
load in streams.
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5. Riverbank erosion
 Riverbank erosion occurs on the concave side
of river bends where the impact of water flow
is greatest and
 where turbulent water causes lifting of
particles from the bottom.
 Fine clay and silt materials are carried in
suspension, whereas heavier materials like
pebbles are transported along the riverbed.
 When the velocity of the water decreases,
these materials are deposited and the cross-
section of the river channel is reduced. 10
 Con't...
 The narrowing of the cross-section during low flows leads
to new erosion of the banks during subsequent floods.
 Poor construction practices, inadequate maintenance,
uncontrolled livestock access and cropping too close can
all lead to bank erosion problems.
 The direct damages from bank erosion include loss of
productive farmland, undermining of structures such as
bridges,
 increased need to clean out and maintain drainage
channels and washing out of lanes, roads and fence rows.
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3.4. Water Erosion Control Measures
3.4.1. Soil loss tolerance
 In nature, we cannot stop soil erosion. But our effort is to
minimize soil erosion up to the quantity that it cannot affect our
land productivity.
 Here comes an idea of “permissible soil loss”, i.e. the tolerable
limit of soil loss.
 The rationale behind measuring soil erosion is to see the exact
soil loss rate of the given land whether it is below or above the
permissible value.
 Theoretically, soil erosion should be maintained at a rate that
equals or is below the natural rate at which new soil forms.
 Unfortunately, it is difficult to recognize when this balance exists
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 Con't...
 Soil loss tolerance: is the maximum annual soil loss expressed in
ton/ha/year that will permit current production levels to be
maintained economically and indefinitely.
 A soil loss tolerance in cropland is defined as the maximum
average annual permissible soil loss without decreasing
productivity.
 Soil loss tolerance of different soil types based on their depth is
different. But in general, 2-11.2 ton/ha/year is considered as
permissible erosion limit.
 The assumption of this limit is that;
-The rate of soil erosion equals the rate of soil formation
- Productivity level of the land will not be disturbed
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 Con't...
 The rationale behind measuring soil erosion is:
a) to see the exact soil loss rate of the given land
whether it is below or above the permissible value.
b) to decide on how to manage a given land to attain
the soil loss rate less or equal to the permissible limit.
 For a farmer or an expert, knowing the erosion
status will help to decide on how to manage a given
land to attain the soil loss rate less or equal to the
permissible limit.
 Recommended tolerance values of specific soils are
used as a guide for soil conservation planning.
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 Soil type / Depth Soil loss ton/ha/yr
Deep fertile loam soil ( 1 – 1.5 6 - 11
m)
Thin highly erodible soil 2-5
Very deep loam soils (> 1.5 m) 13-15
Soil depth
0 – 25 cm 2
25 – 50 cm 2-5
50 – 100 cm 5-7
100 – 150 cm 7-9
> 150 cm 11

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 Con't...
 Soil losses beyond these average values are taken
as productivity affecting level.
 Areas having severe erosion (soil losses more than
the permissible value) needs special treatment =
soil and water conservation measures.
 Soil loss tolerance levels are set as permissible
because:
- Productivity and production will not be affected
at this level of soil loss rate; and
- Natural soil formation rate have the chance to
make the balance.
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3.4.2. Mechanical measures of water erosion control
Physical SWC are ineffective due to the following limitations
 Cannot control direct impact of raindrops
 Cannot keep the soil in place
 Does not improve soil conditions
 Cannot address productivity issues
 Not-effective for in-situ infiltration
 Requires additional cost for materials, design, sometimes
labor, etc
 They lack immediate benefit and economic return; and
also lack sustainability
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 Con't...
 physical (mechanical) SWC practices are used to
control the movement of water and wind over the
soil surface.
 are normally employed to support agronomic
measures.
 A range of techniques is available and the decision
on which to adopt depends on whether the
objective is
- to reduce the velocity of runoff and wind,
- increase the surface water storage capacity or
- safely dispose of excess water.
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1. Contour bunds
 Contour bunds are earth banks thrown across the
slope.
 are used to act as a barrier to runoff, to form a
water storage area on their upslope side and
 to break up a slope into segments shorter in length
than is required to generate overland flow.
 An alternative technique on stony soils is to
construct stone bunds set in a shallow trench on the
contour.
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2. Terraces
 Terraces are earth embankments constructed across the
slope.
 used to intercept surface runoff, convey it to a stable outlet
at a non-erosive velocity and shorten slope length.
 They perform similar functions to contour bunds.
 They differ from contour bunds by their design
specifications.
 Terraces can be classified into three main types: diversion,
retention and bench.
 The primary aim of diversion terraces is to intercept
runoff and channel it across the slope to a suitable outlet.
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 Con’t…
 Retention terraces are used where it is necessary to conserve
water by storing it on the hillside.
 Bench terraces consist of a series of alternating shelves and
risers and are employed where steep slopes need to be
cultivated.
 Fanya juu terraces are used as an alternative to bench terraces.

 Fanya juu are terraces formed by digging a ditch on the contour

and throwing the soil on the upslope side to form a bank.

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3. Waterways
 The purpose of waterways is to convey runoff at a non-erosive
velocity to a suitable disposal point.
 Three types of waterway can be incorporated in a complete surface
water disposal system: diversion channels, terrace channels and
grass waterways.
 Diversions are placed upslope of areas of farmland to intercept
water running off the slope above and divert it across the slope to a
grass waterway.
 Terrace channels collect runoff from the inter-terrace areas and also
convey it across the slope to a grass waterway.
 Grass waterways are therefore designed to transport down slope the
runoff from these sources to empty into the natural river system.

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4. Micro-basins
 are small circular & stone faced structures for tree
planting in the medium, slightly low rainfall areas,
stony areas and shallow soils.
 need to be often combined with other measures
such as hillside terraces, stone bunds, trenches.
 constructed in staggered position between rows.

 Applicable in steep and degraded hillsides.

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5. Eyebrow Basins
 are larger circular and stone faced structures for tree
and other species planting.
 Based upon experience they are effective in low
rainfall areas to grow trees and harvest moisture.
 Can be constructed in slopes above 50% for spot
planting.
 Controls runoff and contribute to recharge of water
tables
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6. Improved pits
 square shaped water collection pits constructed along the
contours with a plantation pit in front of the main water
storage pit.
 support the growth of trees and fodder shrubs, and can be
used for cash crops like coffee.
 are used to recharge the ground water, enhance biomass
production through improved water availability in the soil
profile and reduce runoff and subsequently erosion and land
degradation.
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7. Percolation Pit

Roles:
 Recharge the ground water

 Enhance biomass production through improved water

availability in the soil profile.
 Reduce runoff and subsequently erosion and land
degradation.

It can be constructed on any topography with excess

runoff.
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3.4.3. Agronomical measures of water erosion control
Biological SWC measures have the following advantages
 Prevent direct impact of rain drop
 Control erosion between terraces
 Reward immediate and additional benefits
 Addresses productivity issues
 Easily understood
 Low cost and high degree of success
 Ecologically stable and sustainable
 Socially acceptable

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 Con't...
 Their mechanism of erosion control is mainly
through the provision of adequate ground cover in
space & time.
 The three components of biological SWC are:-

- Agronomic conservation measures

- Soil Management Practices

- Vegetative Conservation measures

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 Agronomic measures
- Crop rotations - Ley cropping
- Intercropping - Cover/green manure crops

- Strip cropping - Contour cultivation

- Alley cropping

- Relay/double cropping

- Mulching/crop residue management

- Fertilization/manuring
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1. Crop rotation
 a practice of growing different crops one after
another on the same piece of land.
Roles
- Crop rotation controls pests & disease
- breaks the life cycle of pests/diseases as well as weeds
- Increase infiltration
- Reduce runoff (soil erosion)
- Improves soil conditions
- Increase productivity
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2. Strip Cropping
 a cropping practice where strips of two or more crops are
alternately grown on the contour.
 It is a defense mechanism against erosion in row/sparse crops.
Crops can be classified as:
a. Soil conserving: e.g. legumes - build fertility
e.g. provide good cover
b. Soil depleting: - expose ground
- deplete fertility e.g. maize/Sorghum
c. Neutral: Neither degrading nor conserving
e.g. Barley/wheat

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3. Ley farming
 is the rotation of legume based pasture with food crops.
 It is also known as improved fallow practice
 The practice seem to be compatible with traditional
fallowing practice in the highlands.
 Purpose of fallowing practice is restoration of fertility of
the soil.
 Fertility restoration comes from:
- Nutrients recycled from deeper soil profile and/or
- Nitrogen fixation by native legumes and
- OM restoration comes from high biomass production.
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4. Alley cropping
 is a cropping practice where crops are grown in
alleys in b/n hedgerows of shrubs/trees.

 Because it is an interface b/n trees and crops it is an

Agro forestry system.
 But, all agro forestry system cannot be Alley
cropping, but vice versa.
 Alley cropping retains basic features of traditional
bush fallow system
 designed to meet subsistence requirement of
chemical fertilizers.
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5. Cover or green manure crops
 Cover crops: crops grown as ground protection
under row/or plantation crops.
e.g. Rubber, oil palm, coconut, sisal, etc.
 Are crops grown as conservation measure on
fallow lands during off-season
- Major objective is to prevent soil erosion
 Green manure crops are crops grown for some
time before the main crops & are incorporated
in-situ.
- The main objective is soil fertility management.
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6. Intercropping
 growing two or more crops simultaneously
in the same plot in a fixed pattern in one
season.
 Mixed cropping: growing many crops on
same piece of land without any pattern.

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7. Relay cropping
 is a practice of growing two or more crops
during the same growing season with certain
overlaps between planting of the 2nd crop and
harvesting of the 1st crop.

Purpose of Relay cropping:

 is to take the advantage of residual moisture and
space in between the rows of the first crop.
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8. Mulching/Crop Residue Management
 Mulching is the covering of the soil with crop
residues such as:
- Straw, (i.e. cereal/straw)
- Maize/sorghum stalks
- Standing stubble
 The Cover Protects:
- Direct impact of raindrops
- reduces runoff; increases infiltration
- Encourages earth worms & insects to
make hole.
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9. Contour Cultivation
 a practice of cultivating and planting crops along
the contour.
 Evenly spreads moisture along the contour.

 Reduces loss of soil & moisture.

 It would be more effective if supplemented with

strip cropping & tied ridges
 Recommended on well drained soils
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10. Fertilization & Manuring
 Fertilization: the application of chemical fertilizers
 Manuring: the application of various manures.
e.g. Green manure, compost, crop residues, etc.
 Manuring is greatly valued because:
- The material is locally available (easily
accessible)
- It is labor intensive, but not capital intensive
- It has lasting effect on soil fertility (builds soil
fertility)
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Soil Fertility Management (SFM)
The principles include:
 Prevention of loss of nutrients & Soil organic matter
 Application of optimum chemical fertilizers
 Use of optimal level of organic fertilizer
 Integrated soil fertility management
 To overcome the problem of shortage of organic material,
it is necessary to intensify biomass production from;
- Fast growing, high biomass producing multipurpose
species:
- Shrub/three species
- Herbaceous grass/legume species
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Soil Organic matter
 improves the biological activity of the soil and
work ability,
 attracts greater reserves of nutrients,
 prevents the buildup of extremes of soil
reactions
 provides micro nutrients
 increases water holding capacity
 retains more moisture i.e. reduces evaporation
& deep drainage
 remains moist for longer period
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Comparison of organic & chemical Fertilizers
 Chemical Fertilizers
- Have little direct impact on SOM.
-Do not improve the physical & biological
properties of the soil
- Have little impact on long-term soil Fertility

 Organic Fertilizers
- Improve the soil physical properties
- Improve the biological properties
- Build fertility of the soil

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Conservation tillage
• creates favorable soil environment for germination,
establishment and plant growth.
• Is designed to avoid tillage operations that destroy soil
structure
Zero tillage: the land remains untilled before planting,
but planting furrow or hole is opened at planting.
• Zero tillage is an extreme form of minimum tillage.
Minimum/Reduce tillage: the least possible tillage
operation is performed.
• ensures a good seedbed, rapid germination &
favorable growing conditions.

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The aim of minimum tillage:
- To break up hard pans/compacted layers
- To increase infiltration/water storage capacity
of soil
- To minimize resistance to root development.
 Minimum tillage ensures a good seedbed, rapid
germination & favorable growing conditions.

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Vegetative Conservation Measures
 Vegetative barriers are narrow strips of stiff, erect
densely growing plants, usually grasses, planted across
the slope perpendicular to the dominant slope.
Their main purpose is to:
 Retard and reduce surface runoff
 Disperse concentrated flow and prevent ephemeral
gully development.
 Trap sediment
 Reduce soil loss by causing deposition of eroded
sediment on hill slopes.
 Facilitate benching of sloping topography.
 Provide valuable wildlife habitat
45
 Con’t…
Requirements for suitable vegetation are as follows:
– Perennial with stiff stems that remain intact year round;
– Not invasive.
– Tolerant of both dry and wet soil conditions.
– Ability to emerge though several inches of sediment or
to resume growth from buried stem nodes.

 grass strips are among the commonly known

vegetative barriers.

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 Chapter Four

Wind Erosion and Control

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4.1. Wind Erosion
 is the process of detachment, transportation, and deposition of
soil material by the action of wind.
 The conditions that favor the occurrence of wind erosion are:-
- Loose & finely divided dry soil;
- dry dispersible sand dominant soil;
- Steady and strong prevailing wind at all levels,
- Smooth and bare soil surface, with lowered surface
roughness
 The vulnerable regions are those with low mean annual
rainfall, i.e. arid and semiarid regions.

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4.2. Mechanics of Wind Erosion
 The wind erosion process consists of three phases:

1. initiation created by wind turbulence

- suspension,

- saltation and

- surface creep

2. transportation, and
3. deposition

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Initiation of Soil Movement by Wind Action
 Movement of soil particles is initiated by wind forces
exerted against or parallel to the surface of ground.
 Fluid threshold velocity: is the minimum velocity
required to produce soil movement by direct action of
the wind.
 Impact threshold velocity: is the minimum velocity
required to initiate movement from the impact of soil
particles carried in saltation.
 After movement is initiated the soil particles are
carried by the wind in three types of movement, i.e.,
saltation, suspension and surface creep.
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Suspension
 Suspension represents the floating of finer
particles (0.02 to 0.1 mm in diameter) and remain
aloft for an extended period of time.
 Suspended particle are often subjected to abrasion
and represent 3 to 10% of eroding particles.
 They are often carried away many kilometers
before being deposited.
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 Saltation
 It is the process where fine particles (0.1 to 0.5
mm in diameter) are lifted from the surface.
 The major portion of soil (more than 65%) is
carried away by this movement.
 Most saltation occurs within 3m of the surface.
This height of jump varies with size and density of
soil particles, surface of roughness and velocity of
the wind.
 saltation process is dependent on the velocity
distribution of wind in relation to height; than the
wind force.
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Surface Creep
 Surface creep is sliding of sand sized
particles or aggregates (0.5 to 2 mm in
diameter).
 It accounts for 7 to 25% of soil movement
due to wind erosion.
The particles set in motion by any of above
mechanisms are to be transported and finally
deposited at some different location.

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Deposition
 occurs when the gravitational force is greater
than the forces holding the particle in the air.
 Decrease in wind velocity caused by
vegetation or other physical barriers, such as
ditches, vegetation, hillocks.
 Raindrop also helps in deposition of sediment.

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4.4. Factors Affecting Wind Erosion
 The rate and magnitude of soil erosion by
wind is controlled by the following factors:
1. Erodibility of Soil
 Very fine particles can be suspended by the
wind and then transported great distances.
 Fine and medium size particles can be lifted
and deposited, while coarse particles can be
blown along the surface.

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 Con’t…
 Soil Surface Roughness: Soil surfaces that are not
rough or ridged offer little resistance to the wind.
 However, over time, ridges can be filled in and
the roughness broken down by abrasion to produce
a smoother surface susceptible to the wind.
 Excess tillage can contribute to soil structure
breakdown and increased erosion.
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2. Climate
 The speed and duration of the wind have a direct
relationship to the extent of soil erosion.
 Soil moisture levels can be very low at the surface of
excessively drained soils or during periods of drought,
thus releasing the particles for transport by wind.
 3. Unsheltered Distance
 The lack of windbreaks (trees, shrubs, residue, etc.)
allows the wind to put soil particles into motion for
greater distances thus increasing the abrasion and soil
erosion.
 hills (knolls) are usually exposed and suffer the
most.
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4. Vegetative Cover
 The lack of permanent vegetation cover in
certain locations has resulted in extensive
erosion by wind.
 Loose, dry, bare soil is the most susceptible,
however, crops that produce low levels of
residue also may not provide enough resistance.
 The most effective vegetative cover for
protection should include an adequate network
of living windbreaks combined with good
tillage, residue management, and crop selection.
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4.6. Wind Erosion Control Measures
Wind erosion occurs whenever conditions are
favorable for detachment and transportation of
soil material by wind.
 From erosion control point of view, little can
be done to change the climate of an area,
 but it is usually possible to alter one or more
of the other factors to reduce erosion.

59
 Con't...
 Soil drifting control are the same in all areas where wind erosion
occur. These are:
 Reduce wind velocity near the ground level below threshold
velocity that will initiate soil movement,

- by planting trees, shrubs, wind breaks, shelter belts

Increase soil resistance

 Increasing the soil roughness

 - by preparing seedbed, by mulching, by leaving clods while

plouhging, by adjusting tillage direction,

Reduce the erodibility of the soil

60
 Con't...
 The principal methods of reducing surface wind
velocity are vegetative measures, tillage practices,
and mechanical barriers.
Vegetative measures
 Vegetation is one of the most effective and
economical means of wind erosion control.
 It retards the wind velocity near the ground surface
and controls soil erosion from the land surface.
 In addition, they also hold the soil against tractive
force of wind and reduce the soil erosion.

61
a) Field cropping practices
 Protecting the surface from attack and
trapping moving particles can be achieved by
keeping the surface covered throughout the
year.
 Planting ‘cover’ crops to protect the surface in
windy seasons, when they occur outside the
main crop growing period, is an effective and
cheap method
 which may produce another useful crop or
provide an effective green manure or mulch.
62
 Con't
 Crops of differing type can be mixed so that the
differing heights, or rates of germination and
growth, increase surface roughness or provide
strips of vegetation that protect intervening strips
of still-bare soil.
 The management of crop residue and stubble can
also be significant, since these also trap moving
particles, provide a rough surface and contribute
organic matter to the soil.
 In general, close growing crops are more effective
for erosion control than inter-tilled crops.

63
b) Shrubs & trees
 Shelterbelts and windbreaks that can be developed by
growing shrubs & trees are important soil conservation
practices for protection of crop and rangelands against
destructive wind erosion.
 Shelterbelt: is a longer barrier than windbreak. It usually
consist shrubs and trees planted in several rows at right angles
to the prevailing wind direction.
Wind strip cropping
 Planting crops in narrow strips is another way to prevent wind
erosion. This is called "strip cropping".
 These narrow strips do not allow the wind to pick up soil
particles.

64
Barriers
• Placing a barrier across the path of the wind reduces velocity
at the ground surface both in front of and behind the barrier, and
reduces the field length.
• Wind break: any type of barrier for protection from winds. It
is more commonly associated with mechanical or vegetative
barriers for buildings, gardens, orchards, and feed lots.
• Barriers may be relatively permanent live vegetation
structures or they may be artificial materials.

65
Tillage practices
 The objective of tillage for wind erosion control is to produce
a rough, cloddy surface with some plant residue exposed on
the surface.
 To obtain maximum roughness the land normally should be
cultivated as soon after rain as possible.
 Large clods as well as a high percentage of large aggregates
are desirable.
 The remains of the previous crop (stubble, stalks, straw)
should not be removed until just prior to planting.
 Reduced tillage or no-tillage is preferable.

66
Soil conditioning
Conditioning the soil by;

 increasing its cohesion with the addition of organic

matter,
 mulching to retain its moisture or

 even irrigating to keep the surface moist all help to resist

erosion.

67
 Chapter Five

Soil Erosion Assessment

68