AC Generators

Engr. Riah Ann DR. Fermin-Cayanan

 video

AC GENERATOR
DC and AC Generators
 both generate alternating EMFs
 Armature and Field
Alternators
Driven at very definite constant speed
 Frequency of generated emf is
determined by that speed
Synchronous generator or
synchronous alternator
Construction
Construction
Stationary armature and rotating field:
The armature winding is more
complex than the field and can be
constructed more easily on a
stationary structure.
The armature winding can be braced
more securely in a rigid frame.
It is easier to insulate and protect the
high-voltage armature windings
Construction
Stationary armature and rotating field:
The armature winding is cooled more
readily because the stator core can be
made large enough and with many air
passages or cooling ducts for forced
air circulation
The low-voltage field can be
constructed for efficient high-speed
operation
Details of Construction
STATOR FRAME
- Holds the armature stampings and
windings in position
Details of Construction
STATOR CORE
- The armature core is supported by the
stator frame and is built up of
laminations of special magnetic iron or
steel alloy
- The core is laminated to minimize loss
due to eddy currents
Details of Construction
ROTOR
- Salient-pole type
- Smooth cylindrical type
 SALIENT-POLE TYPE ROTOR

SMOOTH-CYLINDRICAL TYPE ROTOR

Details of Construction
SALIENT-POLE TYPE ROTOR
- It is used in low-and medium-speed
(engine driven) alternators.
- It has a large number of projecting
(salient) poles, having their cores bolted
or dovetailed onto a heavy magnetic
wheel of cast-iron, or steel of good
magnetic quality
- Such generators are characterized by
their large diameters and short axial
lengths.
Details of Construction
SMOOTH-CYLINDRICAL TYPE
ROTOR
- It is used for steam turbine-driven
alternators - turbo alternators, which run
at very high speeds.
- The rotor consists of a smooth solid forged
steel cylinder, having a number of slots
milled out at intervals along the outer
periphery (and parallel to the shaft) for
accommodating field coils.
- characterized by small diameters and very
long axial (or rotor) length.
 Frequency and Speed
As the poles of a two-pole alternator
revolve, the generated emf in the stationary
armature winding changes direction every
half revolution; therefore one complete
positive and negative pulse, one cycle, will
occur in revolution. It follows, then, that the
frequency in cycles per second will dependent
directly upon the number of revolutions per
second (rpm/60) by the field.
Also, the frequency per revolution is
equal to the number of pair of poles.
Frequency and Speed
The frequency of the emf in an alternator
is proportional to:
1. The speed in revolutions per second
(rpm/60); and
2. The number of pair of poles (P/2)
 Frequency and Speed
N is known as the synchronous speed, because it is the speed at
which an alternator must run, in order to generate an e.m.f. of the
required frequency. In fact, for a given frequency and given
number of poles, the speed is fixed. For producing a frequency of
60 Hz, the alternator will have to run at the following speeds:
Sample Problem
1. An alternator has six poles and
operates at 1200 rpm.
(a) What frequency does it generate?
(b) At what speed must the machine be
operated if it is to have a frequency of 25
cycles? 50 cycles?
Sample Problem
2. What is the maximum speed at
which the field of an alternator can
be operated to develop 60 cycles? 25
cycles? 50 cycles?
Generated Voltage in an Alternator
An average of 1 volt is generated in
one turn of wire if the flux passing thru
that turn changes at the rate of 100,000,000
(108) maxwells per second.

volts

T = number of turns in coil

= flux per pole
t = time, in seconds for flux to change by
Generated Voltage in an Alternator

volts

volts; in maxwells

volts; in weber
Armature Winding
DC Generator – closed circuit windings
AC Generator – windings are open, in
the sense that there is no closed path for
the armature currents in the winding
itself.
1. single-layer winding
2. Double-layer winding
Armature Winding
Single-layer winding
- It is variously referred to as concentric or
chain winding
- Simple bar type or wave winding

a single-layer, one-turn,
full-pitch winding for a four-
pole generator.
Armature Winding
Single-layer winding
Armature Winding
Concentric or Chain Windings
- For this type of winding, the number of
slots is equal to twice the number of coils
or equal to the number of coil sides.
Armature Winding
Concentric or Chain Windings
Armature Winding
Two-Layer Winding
- This winding is either of wave-wound
type or lap-wound type
- the simplest and, as said above, most
commonly-used not only in synchronous
machines but in induction motors as well
Wye and Delta Connections
Short-pitch Winding:
Pitch factor/chording factor
Short-pitch Winding:
Pitch factor/chording factor
Short-pitched coils are deliberately used
because of the following advantages:
1. They save copper of end connections.
2. They improve the wave-form of the
generated e.m.f.
3. Due to elimination of high frequency
harmonics, eddy current and
hysteresis losses are reduced thereby
increasing the efficiency.
Short-pitch Winding:
Pitch factor/chording factor

But the disadvantage of using short-

pitched coils is that the total voltage
around the coils is somewhat reduced.
Short-pitch Winding:
Pitch factor/chording factor
 The pitch factor or coil-span factor kp or
kc is defined as

** It is always less than unity

In general, if the coil span falls short
of full-pitch by an angle (electrical)

= chording angle
Sample Problem
1. Calculate the pitch factor for the
under-given windings :
(a) 36 stator slots, 4-poles, coil-span, 1 to 8
(b) 72 stator slots, 6 poles, coils span 1 to 10
and
(c) 96 stator slots, 6 poles, coil span 1 to 12.
Sketch the three coil spans.
Distribution or Breadth Factor or
Winding Factor or Spread Factor
Distribution or Breadth Factor or
Winding Factor or Spread Factor

The distribution factor kd is defined as

In general case,
Distribution or Breadth Factor or
Winding Factor or Spread Factor

Where:

= phase spread angle

Sample Problem
Calculate the distribution factor for a
36-slots, 4-pole, single-layer three-
phase winding.
Equation of Induced EMF
Corrected Voltage of an Alternator:

volt
Sample Problem
1. A 3-phase, 16-pole alternator has a star-
connected winding with 144 slots and 10
conductors per slot. The flux per pole is
0.03 Wb, Sinusoidally distributed and the
speed is 375 r.p.m. Find the frequency rpm
and the phase and line e.m.f. Assume full-
pitched coil.
Sample Problem
2. The stator of a 3-phase, 16-pole
alternator has 144 slots and there are 4
conductors per slot connected in two
layers and the conductors of each phase
are connected in series. If the speed of
the alternator is 375 r.p.m., calculate the
e.m.f. inducted per phase. Resultant
flux in the air-gap is 5x10-2 webers per
pole sinusoidally distributed. Assume
the coil span as 150° electrical.
Factors Affecting Alternator Size

Efficiency,ή
Power Output per kilogram, W/kg
Speed, N (rpm)
Alternator on Load
As the load on an alternator is varied, its
terminal voltage is also found to vary, as in
d.c. generators. This variation in terminal
voltage V is due to the following reasons:
1. voltage drop due to armature resistance;
2. voltage drop due to armature leakage
reactance;
3. voltage drop due to armature reaction
Alternator on Load
1. Armature Resistance

The armature resistance/phase Ra

causes a voltage drop/phase of IRa
which is in phase with the armature
current I. However, this voltage drop is
practically negligible.
Alternator on Load
2. Armature Leakage Reactance

When current flows through the

armature conductors, fluxes are set up
which do not cross the air-gap, but take
different paths. Such fluxes are known
as leakage fluxes.
Alternator on Load
2. Armature Leakage Reactance
Alternator on Load
3. Armature Reaction
The power factor of the load has a
considerable effect on the armature
reaction.
- When the load pf is unity
- When pf is zero lagging
- When pf is zero leading
Alternator on Load
UNITY POWER FACTOR
- the armature flux is cross-magnetizing. The result is that the
flux at the leading tips of the poles is reduced while it is
increased at the trailing tips. However, these two effects
nearly offset each other leaving the average field strength
constant. In other words, armature reaction for unity p.f. is
distortional.
Alternator on Load
ZERO PF LAGGING
- it is found that armature reaction, in this case, is wholly
demagnetizing, with the result, that due to weakening of the
main flux, less e.m.f. is generated.
Alternator on Load
ZERO PF LEADING
- Hence, in this case, armature reaction is wholly magnetising,
which results in greater induced e.m.f. To keep the value of
generated e.m.f. the same, field excitation will have to be
reduced somewhat.
Alternator on Load
- For intermediate power factor, the effect is partly distortional
and partly demagnetizing (because p.f. is lagging).
Alternator on Load
SYNCHRONOUS REACTANCE
- for the same field excitation, terminal
voltage is decreased from its no-load value
E0 to V (for a lagging pf)
1. drop due to armature resistance, IRa
2. drop due to leakage reactance, IXL
3. drop due to armature reaction
Alternator on Load
Total Voltage drop of alternator under load:

Zs = Synchronous impedance of the

armature

* The vector difference between no-load voltage E0 and

terminal voltage V is equal to IZS
Alternator on Load
E0 = No-load emf. This being the
voltage induced in armature in the
absence of three factors previously.
Hence, it represents the maximum
value of the induced e.m.f.

E = Load-induced emf. It is the induced

e.m.f. after allowing for armature
reaction.
Alternator on Load
No-load EMF:

At unity pf:

At lagging pf:

At leading pf:
Voltage Regulation
Before an AC generator is ready to
function to deliver electrical load,
(1) It must be brought up to synchronous
speed by its prime mover;
(2) It must be separately excited from a dc
source
(3) It must have its terminal voltage
adjusted to the correct value by proper
manipulation of the field rheostat.
Voltage Regulation

Exactly how much the terminal voltage

will drop or rise will depend upon:
(1) The magnitude of the load; and
(2) The actual over-all power factor of
the combined loads
Voltage Regulation
“the rise in voltage when full-load is
removed (field excitation and speed
remaining the same) divided by the
rated terminal voltage.”
Voltage Regulation
1. Synchronous Impedance or E.M.F.
Method
2. The Ampere-turn Method of M.M.F
Method
3. Zero Power Factor or Potier Method

• Armature (or stator) resistance, Ra

• Open-circuit/No-load characteristic
• Short-circuit characteristic (but zero power factor
lagging characteristic for Potier method).
Voltage Regulation
1. Value of Ra
- Armature resistance Ra per phase can be
measured directly by voltmeter and
ammeter method or by using Wheatstone
bridge. However, under working
conditions, the effective value of Ra is
increased due to ‘skin effect’. The value of
Ra so obtained is increased by 60% or so to
allow for this effect. Generally, a value 1.6
times the d.c. value is taken.
Voltage Regulation
2. O.C. Characteristic
- As in d.c. machines, this is plotted by
running the machine on no-load and by
noting the values of induced voltage and
field excitation current. It is just like the B-H
curve.
Voltage Regulation
3. S.C. Characteristic
- It is obtained by short-circuiting the
armature (i.e. stator) windings through a
low-resistance ammeter. The excitation is so
adjusted as to give 1.5 to 2 times the value
of full-load current. During this test, the
speed which is not necessarily synchronous,
is kept constant..
Sample Problem
1. The effective resistance of a 2200V, 50Hz,
440 KVA, 1-phase, alternator is 0.5 ohm.
On short circuit, a field current of 40 A
gives the full load current of 200 A. The
electromotive force on open-circuits with
same field excitation is 1160 V. Calculate
the synchronous impedance and
reactance.
Sample Problem
2. A 60-KVA, 220 V, 50-Hz, 1- alternator has
effective armature resistance of 0.016 ohm
and an armature leakage reactance of 0.07
ohm. Compute the voltage induced in the
armature when the alternator is delivering
rated current at a load power factor of
(a) unity (ans: 225V)
(b) 0.7 lagging and (ans: 234V)
(c) 0.7 leading. (ans: 208V)
Sample Problem
3. From the following test results, determine
the voltage regulation of a 2000-V, 1-phase
alternator delivering a current of 100 A at
(i) unity p.f.
(ii) 0.8 leading p.f.
(iii) 0.71 lagging p.f.
Test results: Full-load current of 100 A is
produced on short-circuit by a field excitation
of 2.5A. An e.m.f. of 500 V is produced on
open-circuit by the same excitation. The
armature resistance is 0.8 ohms.
ALTERNATOR EFFICIENCY
LOSSES
1. Rotational Losses
a) Friction and Windage
b) Brush friction at the field collector rings
c) Ventilation to cool the machine
d) Hysteresis and eddy current in the stator
ALTERNATOR EFFICIENCY
LOSSES
2. Electrical Losses
a) Field winding
b) Armature winding
c) Brush contacts
3. Losses in the excite used for field
excitation
4. Stray-load loss
ALTERNATOR EFFICIENCY

ή
Sample Problem
1. A 2000kVA, 2300-volt, three-phase alternator
operates at rated kilovolt-amperes at a power
factor of 0.85. The dc-armature winding
resistance at 75oC between terminals is 0.08
ohm. The field takes 72 amp at 125 volts from
exciter equipment. Friction and windage loss
is 18.8kW, iron losses are 2.2kW. Calculate
the efficiency of the alternator. (assume that
the effective armature-winding resistance is
1.3 times the dc value).
Parallel Operation of Alternators
Synchronizing
- The operation of connecting an
alternator in parallel with another
alternator or with common bus-bars.
• Importance of Parallel Operation of an
Alternator:
 Efficiency
 Continuity of service
 Increased load
Parallel Operation of Alternators

It is never advisable to connect a

stationary alternator to live bus-bars,
because, stator induced e.m.f. being
zero, a short-circuit will result.
Parallel Operation of Alternators
For proper synchronization of alternators, the
following three conditions must be satisfied:
1. The terminal voltage (effective) of the
incoming alternator must be the same as bus-
bar voltage.
2. The speed of the incoming machine must be
such that its frequency (f = PN/120) equals
bus-bar frequency.
3. The phase of the alternator voltage must be
identical with the phase of the bus-bar voltage.
1 – voltmeter
2 and 3 – synchronizing lamps or synchronoscope
Synchronizing of Alternators
Single-phase Alternators
◦ Two-lamps method
Synchronizing of Alternators
Three-phase Alternators
◦ Three-lamps method
References
Electrical
Machines, Second Edition;
SISKIND; International Student
Edition
BL Theraja: Electrical Technology Vol. 2