Introduction to General

Science
(Lecture.1)
 History of Science

 The word “Science” comes from the Latin word “Scientia”, that means knowing something. It
observes and understands phenomena that take place around us.
 The modern definition of science relies on observation and experimentation through the path of
scientific discoveries has been initiated by ancient Greeks and Romans, trying to logically describe
various natural phenomena.
 Ancient science, however, laid the founding stone for the scientists of the later stages to embark upon.
It has been claimed by many that Aristotle was the first scientist. He came around the 4th century BC
and brought with him the origin of science.
 Historical Development of Science

 Science is a practical and intellectual activity that relies upon the systematic study of the structure and
behavior of every natural and physical object through the process of observation and experiment.
 Since the dawn of the origin of science, many aspects of the world have been called into question. Still,
it can be sorted in three main categories based on the subject of study- natural sciences, social sciences,
and formal sciences.
 Natural Sciences - It comprises the study of the material world.
 Social Sciences - The study of people and societies.
 Formal Sciences - It is the domain of mathematics.
 Historical Evolution of Science

 We will trace the slow transition of science as we progressed over the eras and the scientific
development we have achieved from the ancient science to the modern.
 A quick fact: the word ‘Scientist’ had not come into being until the 19th century, when William
Whewell first coined the term.
 Before the writing system came into being, scientific knowledge and findings were transferred in
the medium of oral tradition. Ancient science followed this process.
 The scientific revolution has occurred in many stages over the years, and each one has bought
myriads of scientific ideas together developed by evolved thinkers.
 Cont…

 In the early stages, when Churches had the upper hand over the people in Europe, original and logical
thoughts were condemned; however, the truth cannot be suppressed.
 One such instance was the findings of Nicolaus Copernicus, who inferred that Earth was not the center of
the universe, and first bought the idea of the solar system in the 16th century. Later, Johannes Kepler
developed the model of planetary motion.
 Another one of those revolutionary thinkers was Galileo Galilei, who came around the 17th century. He
is known as the father of Modern Physics.
 Further strengthened the ideas of Copernicus and Kepler by inventing the telescope and looking beyond
the Earth’s atmosphere.
 Cont…

 Later came, William Gilbert, who conducted various experiments with magnets and electricity. He
proved Earth itself was magnetized.
 As the study furthered, it was categorized into groups. Natural sciences comprise Physics, Chemistry,
Geology, Astronomy, and Biology. Social sciences include the study of political science, geography,
linguistics, economics, psychology, sociology, anthropology.
What is General Science?
 What is General Science?

 General Science includes an array of basic topics from the three branches of Science namely,
Physics, Biology, and Chemistry [BiPC subjects]. Generally, the topics covering the practical
aspects of the common principles of the 3 subjects are put under this section.
 General Science provides a comprehensive undergraduate science education with the opportunity
for concentration in two or three of the following subject areas: Chemistry, Earth &
Environmental Sciences, Life Science, Mathematical Sciences, and Physics.
 Three main branches of Science

 Science is a field of work that involves studying the organic and inorganic matter of the earth and the
universe.
 There are three main branches of science:
 Physical science
 Earth science
 Life science.
 Each of the three branches of science has its own career applications. Some career paths, like teaching,
span across all branches of science.
 What is Physical Science?

 Physical science is the branch of science that deals with inorganic materials, which are materials that are
not living.
 People who work in the field of physical science can uncover new discoveries about how matter works
and other universal phenomena.
 There are several types of physical science, including physics, astronomy and chemistry. There are many
ways that you can use physical science in a career.
 What is Earth Science?

 Earth science is a field of natural science that deals with the materials of the earth and its atmosphere.
 People who work in earth science can contribute to the societal understanding of the earth and how
humans can protect it.
 There are many earth science types and career applications. Some types of earth science include
meteorology, geology, oceanography and environmental science.
 What is Life Science?

 Life science is a branch of science that involves the study of organic things, which are things that are
living.
 The field of life science can help people understand the world, including plants, animals and human
biology.
 Life science is a broad field with many sub-branches and career applications.
 There are several sub-branches of life science, including biology, ecology and agriculture. Life
science is applicable to many careers, especially in the medical field.
 Domains in General Science

 Domain.1 Scientific Practices, Engineering Design and Applications, and Crosscutting Concepts.
 Understand scientific practices.
 a. Demonstrate knowledge of how to ask questions that can be addressed by scientific investigation,
help further understanding of observed phenomena, and help clarify scientific explanations and
relationships.
 b. Apply knowledge of the development of important scientific ideas and models over time and of how
history shows that evaluating a model's merits and limitations leads to its improvement.
 c. Apply knowledge of planning and conducting scientific investigations, including safety
considerations and the use of appropriate tools and technology.
 Cont…

 Understand engineering practices, design, and applications.

 a. Apply knowledge of engineering practices to define problems, determine specifications of
designed systems, and identify constraints.
 b. Evaluate design solutions in terms of their scientific and engineering constraints and the
environmental, social, and cultural impacts of these solutions.
 c. Apply knowledge of the roles of models (e.g., mathematical, physical, computer simulations) in
the engineering design process.
 d. Demonstrate knowledge of the process used to optimize a design solution (e.g., prioritizing
criteria, refining a design due to test results)
 Cont…

 Understand crosscutting concepts among the sciences and engineering.

 a. Apply knowledge of patterns characteristic of natural phenomena and engineered systems.
 b. Analyze cause-and-effect relationships and their mechanisms in natural phenomena and engineered
systems.
 c. Apply knowledge of the concepts of scale, proportion, and quantity to describe and compare natural
and engineered systems.
 d. Apply knowledge of how systems are defined and studied and of how system models are used to
make predictions.
 Domain.2 Physical Sciences

 Understand structure and properties of matter.

 a. Analyze the basic substructure of an atom (i.e., protons, neutrons, and electrons).
 b. Differentiate between atoms and their isotopes, ions, molecules, elements, and compounds.
 c. Apply knowledge of the development and organization of the periodic table and predict the
properties of elements on the basis of their positions in the periodic table.
 d. Demonstrate knowledge of nuclear forces that hold nuclei together and are responsible for nuclear
processes (e.g., fission, fusion) and radioactivity (e.g., alpha, beta, and gamma decay).
 Cont…

 Understand chemical reactions and biochemistry.

 a. Recognize that chemical reactions can be understood in terms of the collisions between ions, atoms,
or molecules and the rearrangement of particles.
 b. Apply knowledge of the principles of conservation of matter to chemical reactions, including
balancing chemical equations.
 c. Describe the effect of temperature, pressure, and concentration on chemical equilibrium (Le
Chatelier's principle) and reaction rate.
 d. Analyze chemical bonding with respect to an element's position in the periodic table.
 Cont…

 Understand motion and stability: forces and interactions.

 a. Apply knowledge of Newton's laws of motion and law of universal gravitation and recognize the
relationship between these laws and the laws of conservation of energy and momentum.
 b. Demonstrate knowledge of the definition of pressure and how pressure relates to fluid flow and
buoyancy, including describing everyday phenomena (e.g., the functioning of heart valves, atmospheric
pressure).
 c. Identify the separate forces that act on a system (e.g., gravity, tension/compression, normal force,
friction), describe the net force on the system, and describe the effect on the stability of the system.
 d. Analyze displacement, motion, and forces using models (e.g., vector, graphic representation,
equations).
 Cont…

 Understand waves and their applications in technologies for information transfer.

 a. Compare the characteristics of mechanical and electromagnetic waves (e.g., transverse/longitudinal,
travel through various media, relative speed).
 b. Demonstrate knowledge of the relationship between wave frequency, wavelength, and amplitude and
energy.
 c. Demonstrate knowledge of resonance and of the reflection, refraction, and transmission of waves.
 d. Apply knowledge of electromagnetic radiation, including analyzing evidence that supports the wave
and particle models that explain the properties of electromagnetic radiation.
 e. Evaluate evidence that indicates that certain wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation may affect
living cells
 Cont…

 Understand energy
 a. Demonstrate knowledge of kinetic and potential energy.
 b. Demonstrate knowledge of the ways in which energy manifests itself at the macroscopic level (e.g.,
motion, sound, light, thermal energy).
 c. Demonstrate knowledge of the principle of conservation of energy, including analyzing energy
transfers.
 d. Demonstrate knowledge of how the transfer of energy as heat is related to changes in temperature
and interpret the direction of heat flow in a system.
 Cont…

 Understand electricity and magnetism

 a. Demonstrate knowledge of electrostatic and magnetostatic phenomena, including evaluating
examples of each type of phenomenon.
 b. Predict charges or poles on the basis of attraction/repulsion observations.
 c. Relate electric currents to magnetic fields and describe the application of these relationships, such as
in electromagnets, electric current generators, motors, and transformers.
 d. Demonstrate knowledge of how energy is stored and can change in electric and magnetic fields
 Domain.3 Life Sciences

 Understand the structure and function of cells

 a. Demonstrate understanding that a small subset of elements (C, H, O, N, P, S) makes up most of the
chemical compounds in living organisms by combining in many ways.
 b. Recognize and differentiate the structure and function of molecules in living organisms, including
carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.
 c. Demonstrate knowledge of evidence that living things are made of cells.
 d. Analyze the similarities and differences among prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells and viruses
 Cont…

 Understand growth, development, and energy flow in organisms.

 a. Demonstrate knowledge of the importance of mitosis and meiosis as processes of cellular and
organismal reproduction.
 b. Compare single-celled and multicellular organisms, including the role of cell differentiation in the
development of multicellular organisms.
 c. Recognize the hierarchical levels of organization (e.g., cells, tissues, organs, systems, organisms) in
plants and animals.
 d. Demonstrate knowledge of the major anatomical structures and life processes (e.g., reproduction,
photosynthesis, cellular respiration, transpiration) of various plant groups.
 Cont…

 Understand ecosystems: interactions, energy, and dynamics.

 a. Demonstrate knowledge of the abiotic and biotic factors in an ecosystem and their relationship to the
growth of individual organisms.
 b. Demonstrate knowledge of the interrelationships within and among ecosystems and recognize factors
that affect population types, size, and carrying capacity in ecosystems (e.g., availability of biotic and
abiotic resources, predation, competition, disease).
 c. Apply knowledge of energy flow, nutrient cycling, and matter transfer in ecosystems (e.g., food webs,
biogeochemical cycles), including recognizing the roles played by photosynthesis and aerobic and
anaerobic respiration.
 Domain. 4 Earth and Space Sciences

 Understand Earth's place in the universe.

 a. Demonstrate knowledge of the evidence for the Big Bang model (e.g., light spectra, motion of distant
galaxies, spectra of primordial radiation).
 b. Demonstrate knowledge of how astronomical instruments are used to collect data and how
astronomical units are used to describe distances.
 Cont…

 Understand Earth's materials and systems and surface processes

 a. Recognize various forms of evidence (e.g., seismic waves, iron meteorites, magnetic field data) that
led to the current model of Earth's structure (i.e., hot but solid inner core, a liquid outer core, a solid
mantle and crust).
 b. Demonstrate knowledge of the dynamic processes of erosion, deposition, and transport, including
evidence for connections between these processes and the formation of Earth's materials.
 c. Demonstrate knowledge of relative and absolute dating techniques, including how halflives are used
in radiometric dating and of how evidence from rock strata is used to establish the geologic timescale.
 Cont…

 Understand plate tectonics and large-scale system interactions

 a. Demonstrate knowledge of the evidence for plate tectonics (e.g., the ages of crustal rocks, distribution
of fossils and rocks, continental shapes) and relate plate movements to continental and ocean-floor
features.
 b. Demonstrate knowledge of the thermal processes driving plate movement and relate density and
buoyancy to plate tectonics.
 c. Demonstrate knowledge of the differences between types of plate boundaries, causes of volcanoes,
earthquakes, and how Earth's resources relate to tectonic processes.
Nature of Science
LECTURE 2
 Understanding the Nature of Science

 When trying to describe the nature of science, it can be useful to

think of science as a culture in just the same way that we think of
the cultural worlds of art and music.
 We need to understand and talk art or music when we enter these
worlds. In the same way, we need to be able to understand and
talk science.
 Science as a culture
 A useful metaphor for science teaching is the teacher as an
anthropologist. Science can be studied in the same way that
anthropologists study another culture.
 Cont…

 Science educator and researcher Derek Hodson compares teaching science to the way an
anthropologist teaches about another culture. Both can be seen as involving a tribe of people with
particular knowledge, a certain language, customs, practices, traditions, attitudes and values.
 When we describe the nature of science, we are considering the special characteristics, values, and
assumptions that scientific knowledge is based on and how scientific knowledge is developed.
 Characteristics of the nature of science

 Science education has defined tenets (characteristics) of the nature of science that are understandable by
students and important for all citizens to know.
 William McComas and Joanne Olson analysed recent science education curriculum documents worldwide
and identified 14 statements about the nature of science that are common to most curricula:
1. Science is an attempt to explain natural phenomena.
2. People from all cultures contribute to science.
3. Scientific knowledge, while durable, has a tentative character.
 Cont….

4. Scientific knowledge relies heavily, but not entirely, on observation, experimental evidence, rational
arguments and scepticism.
5. There is no one way to do science – therefore, there is no universal step-by-step scientific method.
6. New knowledge must be reported clearly and openly.
7. Scientists require accurate record-keeping, peer review and reproducibility.
8. Observations are theory laden.
9. Scientists are creative.
 Cont…

10. Over the centuries, science builds in both an evolutionary and a revolutionary way.
11. Science is part of social and cultural traditions.
12. Science and technology impact each other.
13. Scientific ideas are affected by the social and historical setting.
14. Laws and theories serve different roles in science – therefore, students should note that theories do not
become laws even with additional evidence.
 Simpler still

 Some researchers have refined this list to the following five tenets:
1. Scientific knowledge is tentative (subject to change).
2. Science is empirically based (based on or derived from observation of the natural world).
3. Science is inferential, imaginative and creative.
4. Science is subjective and theory laden.
5. Science is socially and culturally embedded.
 This is probably the most widely recognised list of tenets of the nature of science. These tenets are considered
appropriate for primary to secondary school learning because they provide a more accurate view of the scientific
enterprise and do not require expertise in science
 Scientific Investigation

 The main purpose of a scientific investigation is to build knowledge. Through observation and
experimentation, researchers can find explanations for natural phenomena and apply their findings to
solve real-world problems.
 Additionally, scientific investigation relies on an objective approach that's essential for collecting
accurate data.
 Researchers who implement this process can reduce the influence of their biases and ensure their
results are based on empirical evidence.
 Scientific investigation is applicable in fields ranging from chemistry, biology and physics to geology
and psychology.
 Professionals in various industries can implement the process to test hypotheses and report findings.
 Types of Scientific Investigation

 Descriptive Investigation
 A descriptive investigation focuses on making observations and measuring natural systems rather than
testing a hypothesis.
 Researchers implement a prescribed methodology for data collection, meaning others can understand
how they gathered information and determine whether the information is reliable.
 Others may even implement the prescribed methodology themselves to discover if they can get the same
results.
 Examples of descriptive investigation include analyzing the distribution of bird colonies on an island or
measuring the salinity of a lake. In these examples, researchers simply observe their environments
rather than comparing data or using experiment variables.
 Comparative Investigation

 A comparative investigation is a process of collecting data on a variable under conditions. It usually

involves a hypothesis, an independent variable and a dependent variable.
 Because comparative investigations tend to occur in nature rather than in a laboratory, they don't
necessarily require control variables. Any control variables present are usually a result of natural
occurrences instead of the researcher's influence.
 An example of a comparative investigation is measuring the amount of runoff that two streams produce.
One stream is in a forested area and the other is in a clear-cut area, meaning location is the independent
variable. The dependent variable is the volume of runoff, and the natural controls are similar area sizes
and rainfall amounts.
 Experimental Observation

 An experimental investigation attempts to determine if there's a causal relationship between an

independent and dependent variable. Like comparative investigations, experimental investigations
involve a hypothesis, an independent variable and a dependent variable.
 Because these investigations usually occur in laboratories, researchers implement rigorous control
variables to ensure a constant environment.
 For instance, consider an experiment where the researcher wants to determine the effects of a fertilizer on
plant growth. They would likely plant seeds from the same plant in the same sized pots with the same
soil. Other constant factors include the amount of water and sunlight each plant receives.
 How to conduct a scientific investigation?

1. Make observations
 Even if you know what you want to investigate, consider making observations.
 Observing your environment can provide context for your future experiment and help you better
understand what you want to learn.
 For instance, a student might notice a toy car going down a ramp and wonder how he can make the toy
car go faster.
 Cont…

2. Ask a question
 Ideally, the question you try to answer during your scientific investigation is specific and measurable.
 Consider beginning the question with "what," "how" or "why" to narrow the focus of your experiment.
For instance, a student might ask, "How does the steepness of a ramp affect a car's speed?"
 Cont…

3. Create a hypothesis
 While not all scientific investigations require a hypothesis, it can be easier to test a preexisting theory
instead of developing a new theory during your experiment.
 You may use your intuition to develop a theory or conduct research about the topic. In the example
above, the student might hypothesize that the car's speed increases as the ramp becomes steeper.
 Cont…

4. Conduct an experiment
 Well-designed experiments usually have controls and a clear way to measure the results.
 In the example above, the student can ensure they only test the effect of the ramp's steepness by using the
same toy car and giving it the same amount of push.
 They can measure the speed of the car by starting a stopwatch when the car begins to roll down the ramp
and stopping the time when the car hits the floor.
 Cont…

5. Analyze the results

 After conducting multiple trials, you can analyze the results. For instance, consider the average times it
took for the car to get down two ramps.
 The least steep ramp had an average time of 1.5 seconds, and the steepest ramp had an average time of
0.9 seconds. The student can likely accept their hypothesis that speed increases as the ramp becomes
steeper.
Any Questions?