Introduction to soil

water relationships

1
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4
Particle density (s)
Definitions
 Mass of soil particle divided by volume of soil particle

 Specific gravity, SG = ratio of mass of soil particle to

mass of equal volume of water of water at 4°C

 Particle density in cgs or tonnes m-3

numerically equal to SG

 mean particle density depends on:

 ratio of OM to mineral matter
 constitution of soil minerals
 constitution of OM
5
Determination
 SG bottle
 boiled water to remove dissolved air
 de-aerate for several hours with vacuum pump to remove
air trapped between particles
 problem of floating OM

Typical values
 organic matter = 1.3 g cm-3
 quartz = 2.66 g cm-3
 average for clay = 2.65 g cm-3
 orthoclase = 2.5 to 2.6 g cm-3
 mica = 2.8 to 3.2 g cm-3
 limonite = 3.4 to 4.0 cm-3
 Fe (OH)3 = 3.75 cm-3
 normally taken as 2.65 cm-3 6
 Bulk density (b) and related parameters

Bulk density

b = mass of solids
total volume

Value is effected by particle density, degree of compaction,

organic matter content 7
Typical values:
• 0.9 for organic soil (peaty) to 1.8 for compacted sand
• Sand generally has a higher density than clay - why?
• What do we mean by heavy & light soils?
Determination:
 soil coring devices
 problems of compaction
 oven drying at 105°C
 gamma ray transmission

8
Gamma ray transmission
 measures density –
 2 probes - transmitter & detector

9
Wet v dry bulk density

Ms + M w
Vt

10
Coefficient of linear extensibility (COLE)
Bulk density changes in swelling - shrinking soils.
COLE is a measure of this

COLE  3 Change in volume

Volume of added water

Compares dry with saturated soil after it comes to

equilibrium.

Cracks complicate the problem of determining BD of

swelling soils.

Even allowing for cracks the overall density may be higher

on shrinking as the surface becomes lower.
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12
Total pore space (T)
= volume of (air + water)
vol. of (air + soil + water)

13
Volume of (air + water)
= total volume (air + soil + water) - volume of soil
Vt  Vs Vs
T Vt  1 Vt

where Vt and Vs are the volumes of the total sample and

the soil particles respectively

Vs = Ms /s and Vt = Ms /b

where Ms is the mass of oven dry soil and s and b are the
particle density and bulk density respectively. So:
Ms
s
T 1 
Ms
b 14
and so:
b
T 1 s
and :
b = (1-T)/s

Used in agricultural (soils) research especially for

compaction studies.

Typical values 0.3 to 0.6. Often expressed as a %.

15
Packing density
measure of compaction of particular texture class

Void ratio (e)

Used mainly in engineering applications
e = volume of (air + water)
volume of soil
e = T/(1-T) [void ratio]
Typically 0.3 to 2.0

Air filled porosity

= volume of air
volume of total

16
 Moisture content and related parameters

(a) Volumetric basis:

volume of water
volume of total
v = Vw/Vt

(b) Gravimetric basis:

mass of water
mass of soil

m = Mw/Ms

17
As Vw = Mw/w and Vt = Ms/b then

and so v = mb/w

= mb/1 (not dimensionally correct)

in metric measurements - density of water is 1

Often expressed as depth/depth for example mm/m

18
Degree of saturation (s)
degree of saturation = volume of water
volume of (water + air)
s = V/T

Liquid ratio
Liquid ratio = volume of water
volume of solid

19
 An example to try

A hole 30 cm X 30 cm x 30 cm is dug in a field. The wet

soil weighs 50.55 kg. The soil is taken back to the
laboratory and oven dried. The final weight is 38.34 kg.
(a) What is the bulk density
(b) What was the moisture content in the field
(i) by volume
(ii) by weight
(c) If the mean particle density is 2.64, what is the total
pore space

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 Graphical representation ....

Winter moisture profile in Ragdale series (boulder clay)

35 40 45 50 55
0
-20
-40
Depth (cm)

-60
-80
Q. Why is the moisture
-100 content less at depth?)
-120
-140
-160
Volumetric moisture content (%) 21
Measurement of soil moisture
Laboratory
 definitive
 weigh, oven dry at 105°C for 24 hours, reweigh
 if volume of hole from which sample was taken is
known, bulk density can be calculated and hence
volumentric moisture content
Field methods
Include:
 neutron scattering
 gamma ray transmission
 time domain reflectometry
 all need calibration against laboratory method

22
Neutron scattering

23
• H scatters and slows neutrons very effectively - elastic
collisions with atomic nuclei
• called “thermalisation” of fast neutrons - come to same
thermal (vibrational) energy as atoms at ambient
temperature
• hydrogen, has nucleus of about same size & mass as neutron
and so has much greater thermalising effect on fast
neutrons than any other element
• method detects mostly H atoms not water per se
• single probe containing radioactive source of high-energy
neutrons such as radium-beryllium or americium-beryllium
or caesium-137
• thermal neutron density easily measured
• thermal neutron density may be calibrated against water
concentration on volume basis of other sources of H are
constant
24
Time domain reflectometry
 measures dielectric constant - ability of soil to
transmit electromagnetic (radar) waves -
 mostly but not entirely dependent on water

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Theta Probe

26
Simple parameters to characterise H2O & O2 availability
Soil water potential
 matric potential
 gravitational potential
 pressure potential

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Note on units
Soil water potential is the energy density -
usually per unit volume
Since dimensions of energy is ML2T-2 (force x distance)
dimensions of soil water potential has dimensions of
ML-1T-2
Pressure is force per unit area so has units of
MLT-2/L2 = ML-1T-2
Soil water potential thus has same units as pressure.
It can this be expressed as bars, cm H2O, cm Hg,
atmospheres
SI unit of Pressure, and so energy density, is the Pascal
1 kPa = 10 mb, 1 bar = 100 kPa

28
Capillarity and
adsorbed water
combine to produce
matric potential

29
Permanent wilting point
Usually taken as 15 (1500 kPa) bars, but may be more,
e.g. 20 bars (2000 kPa).
Water held between 1500 and 2000 kPa negligible
in virtually all soils.
PWP strongly correlated with clay.

In reality, a dynamic property which depends on:

 potential evapotranspiration,
 unsaturated hydraulic conductivity of the soil,
 type of plant.

30
Field capacity
 the upper limit of available water;
 traditionally defined as the moisture content of a soil
48 hours after saturation and subsequently being allowed
to drain;
 a high proportion of irrigation water added above
field capacity is “wasted”;

FC has also been considered to be:

 0.33 bars [33 kPa] in USA or
 0.1 bars [10 kPa] in the UK

FC also sometimes considered as the mean soil moisture

content in winter (cold climates) when the potential
evapotranspiration is small (and so drainage is main factor
governing equilibrium moisture content. 31
The tension equivalent to FC will be at least equal to
the air entry potential - see below.

FC, PWP and AWC are strongly dependent on texture, OM

and BD

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Air capacity
Defined as the air content (%) at field capacity.
Used in poaching studies.
Low air capacity usually means poor aeration.
Available water capacity
Difference between FC and PWP (%)
often x soil depth to give mm

Texture FC (%) PWP(%) AWC (mm/m)

clay 44 31 130
clay loam 40 25 150
sandy loam 29 17 120
fine sand 16 8 80
sand 9 4 50

Typical values of FC, PWP and AWC 33

 Exercise

The moisture content of a soil at field capacity was

found to be 27.3% by weight. At wilting point, the
moisture content was 19.7%. After oven drying of a
volumetric sample, it was found that the bulk
density was 1.42 g cm-3.

What is the available water capactiy as a percentage

of the volume?

A crop has a rooting depth of 1.5 m. How much water

is potentially available to the crop in mm equivalent.

If irrigation is to take place when the AWC is depleted

by 40%, how much water would need to be added? 34
Effect of bulk density on air capacity, wilting point &
field capacity

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Dependence of compaction on moisture content

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38
 Wet year

Any
suggestions?
Dry year

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Dynamic nature of FC, PWP, AWC
It is important to realise that FC, PWP and AWC are
commonly conceived as static soil properties but that
in reality, the are used as proxies for characteristics of
dynamic system.
They do not take into account:
• field conditions such as underlying horizons;
• rainfall and or irrigation frequency and amount;
• hydraulic conductivity of the soil;
• run-off characteristics;
• roots extension;
• water infiltration and redistribution;
• drainage from soil profile;
• some water may drain at the same time as
evapotranspiration takes place;
• ground cover changes; 40
• crop height changes
• climate, especially evapotranspiration rate effect the
values

Beware of too simplistic a view.

Even so, FC, PWP and AWC are very useful concepts.

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Measurement of soil potential
Tensiometers

After Richards, 1965

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Electrical resistance methods

• Gypsum blocks

• Granular Matrix Sensors

• e.g. WATERMARK sensor from
Irrometer Co, USA

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Relationship of soil water potential to soil vapour pressure
If vapour between soil particles is in equilibrium with held
water, the vapour pressure is influenced by the “pull” of
the soil water ...

 t    ln 
RT
M
e
e0

where :
t is the sum of matric and osmotic potential
 is the density of the water at the prevailing temperature,
R is the Universal Gas Constant
M is the molecular weight of water
T is the Temperature (°K)
e is the vapour pressure in the soil pores
e0 is the saturated vapour pressure of free water at the
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particular temperature
The phenomenon is used as the basis of:

(a) the determination of the potential of a soil in the

laboratory (often in order to determine the moisture
release characteristics) by allowing a filter paper of
known pore size / moisture release characteristics to
come into equilibrium with the moist air over the soil
which is also in equilibrium with the soil water
potential.

(b) to determine the soil water potential in the field by

determining the humidity of the soil air using a
thermocouple psychrometer

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46
Moisture release characteristics
Determination
 pressure plate apparatus
 sand; sand/kaolin bath apparatus
 filter paper - allow to come into equilibrium and weigh
paper
 solution - mixture so that vapour pressure is known and
this can be equated to soil potential, allow soil to come
into equilibrium with solution
 use of pF scale

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Filter paper method top filter paper not in
contact - measures
sum of matric and
osmotic
potential of soil
bottom filter paper is
in pore contact so
measures matric
potential

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Hysteresis

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50
Typical curves

Near air entry

potential

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Air entry potential (e)
Also known as air entry value or bubbling pressure
= pressure at which largest pores begins to empty

Related to structure and field capacity.

e corresponds to the largest pore size

where
 12
es  0.5d g
and
b  2 es  0.2 g
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es is the air entry potential when the bulk density is
1.3 g cm-3
 is in J/kg
dg the geometric mean particle diameter, is in mm, and
g is the geometric standard deviation of the particle sizes
in mm (ranges from 1 to 30).

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Example calculation of dg and g (based on Campbell, p.9)
It is assumed that
• clay has d < 0.002 mm
• silt has 0.002 < d < 0.05 mm
• sand has 0.05 < d < 2 mm

The predictor equations assumes that particle size

distribution is log normal

Logarithm of geometrical mean is given by:

ln dg = mi ln di
where the di are the textural class sizes and mi are the
amounts in each class

The di for the size classes are calculated from 54

(lower limit + upper limit)/2
thus:
dclay = 0.001 mm; ln(dclay) = - 6.91
dsilt = 0.026 mm; ln(dsilt) = -3.65
dsand = 1.025 mm; ln(dsand) = 0.025

If a soil is 0.6 clay, 0.25 silt and 0.15 sand, then

ln dg = (0.6 x - 6.91) + (0.25 x - 3.65) + (0.15 x 0.025)
= - 4.146 - 0.9125 + 0.00375 = - 5.05475

= 0.00638 mm

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Substituting this in the above equation,
the standard air entry potential is - 12 J kg-1
To make allowances for bulk density,
we need first to calculate g.

The normal standard deviation is given by:

2 2 2 2
  ( f1 X 1  f 2 X 2  f 3 X 3 )  X
2

In a similar way, the logarithmic standard deviation is given

by:
(ln g )2 = f1(ln d1)2 + f2 (ln d2)2 + f3 (ln d3)2 - (ln dg)2
The geometric SD is the antilog of the SD of the log
transformed values.
Thus: ln g = 2.42 and so g = e2.42 = 11.24
and b = 2 x 12 + 0.2 x 11.24 = 24 + 2.25 = 26.25 56
 Thus for this soil,

e  12  
 b 17.6
1.3

For bulk densities of 1.1, 1.3 and 1.5, the air entry potentials
would be:
- 0.84,
- 12
- 148.9 J kg -1

respectively

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Sand tension table (0 to 100 cm potential)

58
Kaolin table
(100 cm to H should be added to difference
between atmospheric pressure and
400 cm pressure in aspirator bottle
potential)

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Pressure plate method
for potentials from
1 bar to 15 bars
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Prediction of matric potential
Not reliable but some workers use equations of the form:

 
b
 m  e 
s

where s = saturation % (vol) and Fe, the air entry potential

is calculated as before from:

 e   es  
 0.67 b
b
1.3

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Clays
Treated here because flocculation in the field is an essential
part of reclamation of sodic soils.
Flocculation occurs when clay particles “stick” together
because of electrical forces to form larger particles and
hence improves the hydraulic properties of the clay
Flocculation changes the hydraulic conductivities and the
moisture holding properties of clay soils.

Clay = 0.2 Colloidal clay: =< 0.2m

Adsorption: concentration of one material at surface

of another
Absorption: uptake of one material into another 62
Colloidal material is surrounded by thin layer of solution
which is different in composition from the solution
(relatively) far away from the particles.
Layer moves with the particle.

Micelle: colloidal particle + hydration shell

Intermicellar fluid : solution between micelles

63
64
Micelles usually negatively charged because of:
• isomorphic substitution:
• Si++++ in the clay may be substituted by Fe+++ or Al+++
which makes the clay short of + charge and so
negatively charged - smectite or illite type materials
• Fe++ or Mg++ may replace Fe+++ or Al+++ in alumina or
gibbsite sheets
• ionisation at the surface:
• e.g. appearance of OH - at the surface and edges of
micelle
• H2O adsorption and subsequent ionisation & diffusion
of H+ leaving a net negative charge because of the OH –
• preferential adsorption of anions from solution for
example the adsorption of CO3- onto calcium carbonate
leaving an associated ion in solution 65
Some mutual attraction occurs between particles
because of edge effects

66
Double layer
Double layer is name given to accumulation of positively
charged ions around negatively charged micelles – some
attached, some in solution

• controls flocculation and dispersion

• dependent on
– cation type
– cation concentration
– pH
• the thicker the double layer, the greater the net
repulsion and the more dispersed a soil becomes
• important in structure and aggregation and reclamation
of saline and sodic soils 67
Negative ion concentration in solution increases with distance & positive ion

concentration decreases
negatively charged
soil particle

+ +
+ +
a layer of cations directly +
+
satisfies some of the
negative charge + +
+ +
+ +
+ + + +
+
+ +
+ ++ +
+ + + +
+
+ + +
+ diffuse second layer eventually
+ ++ +
+ + + reaches same
+ concentration as surrounding
+ + bulk solution
68
Different models:
 Helmholtz model - assumes the charge concentration
decreases linearly with distance

 Gouy-Chapman model - assumes charge concentration

decreases exponentially with distance

 Stern model - assumes linear decrease in the Stern

layer near the surface and then an exponential
decrease - thickness of Stern layer normally
taken as equal to the ionic radius of the adsorbed
species.

69
The double layer is depressed by increasing the
valency of the ions in the intermicellar solution and hence the
packing of the charge near the micelle surface.

This is known as the depression of the double layer.

70
 Effect of cation type

+ +
+ ++ + +
+ + + +
+ + +
+ ++ + + + ++ +
+ + + +
+ +
+ + +
+ + + +
+ +
++
+ + + +
smaller cations, like Mg , will
2+

decrease double layer thickness +

+

larger cations, like Na+, will

increase double layer thickness
71
If concentration of intermicellar solution is increased,

concentration of ions in double layer reaches concentration of

intermicellar concentration nearer the micelle

surface

72
 Effect of Cation Concentration

+ + + + +
+ + +
+ + +
+ + + +
+ + + ++ + + +
+
+ + + + +
+ + +
+ +
+ + + + + + + ++ +
+ + +
++ + + +
+ + + + +
+ + + + +
+ +
+ + + + + ++ +
+ + + +
+ + + +
high ionic concentrations will +
+ +
decrease double layer thickness

low ionic concentrations will

increase double layer thickness
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 pH
Kaolinite edge neutral pH

OH lower pH OH higher pH
O(-1)
Si Si
(+1/2) Si
OH
OH(-1/2)
O(-1/2)
Al Al
(+1/2) Al
OH OH
(+1/2)
(-1/2)
OH
74
London - van der Vaals forces
In addition to repulsive forces caused by accumulated
positive charges, there is also an attractive force between
clay particles caused by London - van der Vaals forces.

These forces, which occur even between electrically neutral

atoms, are due to the fact that, although the average
electrical field of a neutral spherical atom is zero,
the instantaneous field is not zero but fluctuates with the
movements of the electrons in the atom (or ion).

When 2 atoms (or ions) approach, they can synchronise their

electronic motions so that the electrical charge in one surges
towards the other when the fluctuations in this second atom
happen to leave its nuclear field somewhat exposed in this
particular direction.
75
76
Depending on relative strength of forces of attraction and
forces of repulsion, attractive van der Waals forces may
predominate in which case flocculation takes place.

77
78
The thickness of the double layer is altered by both the
concentration and the ratio of divalent to monovalent ions
(and the ratio of tri-valent ions to mono-valent ions).

If the constitution and concentration of the soil solution

is changed, the constitution of the ions in the double layer
will change.

Replacement of monovalent ions by divalent ions in the double

layer makes it thinner and so more easy for Van der Waals
forces to take over and make the particles stick together

Langmuir equation
Relates the amount of adsorption onto clay particles to
the concentration of the solution.
Look it up.
79
Specific surface
Important effect on:
 cation exchange
 retention and release of various chemicals
(nutrients and pollutants)
 swelling of clays
 retention of water
 engineering properties
(e.g. plasticity, cohesion, strength )

80
am = As/Ms
av = As/Vs
ab = As/Vt

where a is the specific surface,

As is the total surface area in the sample,
Ms is the mass of solids,
Vs is the volume of the solids,
Vt is the total volume of the sample.

Suffixes m, v and b refer to whether specific surface is

on a mass basis, volume of solids basis or volume of
total soil basis.
81
Measured from amount of gas absorbed at certain T and P.

Can also be estimated from particle size distribution &

distribution of minerals

NB. surface area/volume for sphere = 6/d = av

Typical values

82
Texture and particle size distribution
Definitions of sand, silt, clay
1  = 10-6 m = 10-3 mm
sand: 50 - 2000 
silt: 2 - 50 
clay : < 2

83
Texture triangles (using above definitions)

84
85
Mechanical analysis
Separation of particles
 OM removed by H2O2
 sometimes CaCO3 cementing agent removed by HCl
 deflocculation by adding Calgon
(sodium hexametaphosphate)
 mechanical agitation (shaking, stirring, ultrasound)

Sieving
Use sieves down to 0.05 mm (very fine sand)

86
Sedimentation

Theory
Falling particle in a fluid experiences a downward force
and resistance force (drag) in opposite direction.

Stokes (1851) found that the drag was given by:

Fd = 6ru

u is terminal velocity,
 is the viscosity,
r is the radius of the sphere

87
When the two forces are in equilibrium,
particle reaches a “terminal velocity”. In that condition,

downward force on the particle

= gravity - upthrust due to fluid density
Upthrust = weight of particle - weight of fluid displaced

weight of particle = 4/3  r3 s g

where s is the particle density
weight of water displaced = 4/3  r3 f g
where w is the density of fluid
So upthrust is 4/3  r3 (s - f) g
At terminal velocity,
6ru = 4/3  r3 g(s - f) 88
which can be rearranged as:
d 2g
u 18 (s  f )
where d is the diameter of the particle.

Since u = h/t where

h is height dropped and
t is the time elapsed
t = h/u
and so

and

 
1
18 h
d
2
tg ( s  f ) 89
Pipette method
All particles > d(h, t) will have settled out by time t

Proportion of original can be determined by taking a sample

After 8 hours only clay is left in suspension

Hydrometer
Measures density of remaining soil suspension instead of
taking a sample

X-ray transmission methods

Transmission related to density.
Gives continuous distribution
90
Soil structure

see handout

91