MCT 308 -

Electromechanical Devices
By

Alim, Sabur Ajibola (Ph.D., R.Eng. {COREN})

Magnetism
 A brief history
1600 William Gilbert, On magnetism; magnetic materials; poles that attract & repel;
Earth’s magnetic field, compass ‘dip’
1820 Hans Christian Oersted finds that an electric current deflects a compass needle .
1820 Andre Marie Ampère finds that parallel wires carrying current produce forces on
each other.
1820s, 1830s Michael Faraday develops the concept of electric field and shows that
electric current + magnetism -> motion (motor effect)
motion + magnetism -> electric current (electromagnetic induction)

1860s James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879) establishes a mathematical description of

electromagnetism.
 Common misconceptions

• All metals are magnetic materials.

• Static charges interact with the poles of permanent magnets.

• Magnetic poles are located on the surface of a magnet.

[Careful observation shows that they are inside the

magnet.]
Magnetic poles: always pairs
A permanent magnet can be split into two or more
magnets, each with N and S poles which cannot
be isolated.

This suggests that the magnetic effect of a

permanent magnet comes from microscopic,
circulating electric currents.
 Domain theory

Microscopic structure
demagnetised

Electron spin, inside atoms,

is the main cause of
magnetised
ferromagnetism.
Magnetising & Demagnetising

Make a magnet
• by stroking
• by using DC coil carrying current
• by tapping while aligned with the Earth’s field

Demagnetise a magnet
• by dropping or banging randomly
• by heating
• by applying a diminishing AC current
 Magnetic Induction
A permanent magnet can induce temporary magnetism in a
‘soft’ magnetic material.
• This causes attraction, but cannot cause repulsion.
• Use repulsion to test if an object is already magnetised.
Magnetic field of a straight wire
NB: Here
field lines
are closed
loops.

Right hand screw rule, a.k.a. the ‘corkscrew’ or

‘pencil sharpener’ rule:
Place thumb in direction of current; fingers indicate direction of
the magnetic field.
Sources of Magnetic Fields
 Magnetic circuit
The complete closed path followed by any group of magnetic lines of flux.

Equivalent electrical circuit

 Basic Definitions
Magneto Motive Force, MMF (F)
 Force which drives the magnetic lines of force through a
magnetic circuit.
 MMF, F = ΦS, where ‘Φ’ is the magnetic flux and ‘S’ is the Reluctance of
the magnetic path.
Analogy: EMF, V=IR
 Also, For Electromagnets:
MMF= N I (No. of turns*Current),
where N is the number of turns of the coil and I is the current flowing
in the coil
 Unit: AT (Ampere Turns)
Basic Definitions
Magnetic flux (Φ):

 Number of magnetic lines of force created in a

magnetic circuit.
 Unit : Weber (Wb)

Analogy: Electric Current, I

 Basic Definitions
Reluctance [S]
• Opposition of a magnetic circuit to the setting up of magnetic flux in it.

Flux    BA; F  mmf  Hl; B  H

 BA μ0 μr A  μ0 μ r A 
  ; Hence    F
F Hl l  l 
F F  l 
  ; where S   
 l S  0  r A 
 
 0  r A 
• S=F/ɸ Analogy: Resistance
• Unit: AT / Wb
Basic Definitions
Magnetic Flux Density (B):
 No. of magnetic lines of force created in a magnetic circuit per unit area normal
to the direction of flux lines
 B = Φ/A
 Unit : Weber/m2 (Tesla)
Analogy: Current Density

Magnetic Field Strength (H)

 The magneto motive force per meter length
of the magnetic circuit
 H = (N I) / l Analogy: Electric field
 Unit : AT / meter strength
Basic Definitions
Permeability (µ)
 A property of a magnetic material which indicates
the ability of magnetic circuit to carry magnetic flux.
 μ=B/H Analogy: Conductivity
 Unit: Henry / meter
 Permeability of free space or air or non magnetic
material μ0=4*Π*10-7 Henry/m
 Relative permeability, μr : μ/μ0
Magnetic circuit
Analogy with Electric circuits
Similarities:
Electric circuit Magnetic circuit
Quantity Unit Quantity Unit
EMF (E=IR) Volt (V) MMF (F=ɸS) Ampere-turns
Current (I) Ampere (A) Flux (ɸ) Weber (Wb)
Current density (J) A/ m2 Flux density (B) Wb / m2 or Tesla

Resistance (R) Ohm (Ω) Reluctance (S) Ampere-turns/Wb

Electric field Volts/m Magnetic field Ampere-turns/m
strength (E) strength (H)
Conductivity (σ) Siemen/m Permeability, µ Henry/m
σ=l/RA µ=l/SA
‘l’ is the length and ‘A ‘is the area of cross section of the conductor
Magnetic circuit
Differences between electric and magnetic circuits

 In electrical circuit current actually flows.

 In magnetic circuit flux is created, and it is not a
flow.
Magnetic field of a solenoid

N S

Right hand grip rule: Wrap fingers around solenoid in

direction of current; thumb indicates N pole.
Note the similarity
A stronger electromagnet

Length of a solenoid is L
• Use iron or steel core (increasing permeability, )
• Increase the current, I
• Increase wraps or turns of solenoid, N.

N
B I
L
 Uses of electromagnetism
• loudspeaker
• moving coil microphone
• motors of various designs
• electric bell or buzzer (can be made in class, URLS below)
• moving coil galvanometer (ammeter)

• relay (control circuit with small current switches a second,

larger, current circuit)
Practical Physics website: model buzzer, model electric bell
AC generator
Motor/generator

SEP unit
Faraday’s Law of Induction
The emf induced in a circuit is directly proportional
to the time rate of change of the magnetic flux
through the circuit.

d B
E 
dt
where,  B   B.dA

d B
For N loops, E  N
dt
 Lenz’s Law
The polarity of the induced emf is such that it tends to produce
a current that creates a magnetic flux to oppose the change in
magnetic flux through the area enclosed by the current loop.

As the bar is slid to the right,

the flux through the loop
increases.
This induces an emf that will
result in an opposing flux.

Since the external field is into

the screen, the induced field has
to be out of the screen.

Which means a
counterclockwise current
 Classification of magnetic Materials

Permanent Dipoles
Ye
No s
Para, Ferro, Anti ferro,
Dia magnetic
Ferri magnetic materials
materials
Alignment of
d om Uniform
R an dipoles
Ferro, Anti ferro, Ferri
Para
m e Oppo
Sa Direction of site
dipoles
Ferro Anti ferro, Ferri

Magnitudes of dipoles Dif

fe r
m e e nt
Sa
Ferri
Anti ferro
Diamagnetic Materials
 Properties
• It is a weak form of magnetism

• Diamagnetism is because of orbital magnetic moment.

• No permanent dipoles are present so net magnetic moment is zero.

• Persists only when external field is applied.

• The number of orientations of electronic orbits is such that the vector sum of the

magnetic moments is zero.

• Dipoles are induced by change in orbital motion of electrons due to applied

magnetic field.
 No Applied Applied
Magnetic Field (H = 0) Magnetic Field (H)

opposing
none
• External field will cause a rotation action on the individual electronic orbits.

• The external magnetic field produces induced magnetic moment which is due

to orbital magnetic moment.

• Induced magnetic moment is always in opposite direction of the applied
magnetic field.
• So magnetic induction in the specimen decreases.
• Magnetic susceptibility is small and negative.
• Repels magnetic lines of force.
• Diamagnetic susceptibility is independent of temperature and applied magnetic
field strength.
• Susceptibility is of the order of -10-5.
• Relative permeability is less than one.
• It is present in all materials, but since it is so weak it can be observed only
when other types of magnetism are totally absent.

• Examples: Bi, Zn, gold, H2O, alkali earth elements (Be, Mg, Ca, Sr),
superconducting elements in superconducting state.
Paramagnetic Materials
 Properties
• Possess permanent dipoles.
• If the orbital's are not completely filled or spins not balanced, an overall small
magnetic moment may exist.
• i.e. paramagnetism is because of orbital and spin magnetic moments of the electron.
• In the absence of external magnetic field
• all dipoles are randomly oriented
• so net magnetic moment is zero.
• Spin alignment is random.
• The magnetic dipoles do not interact
Paramagnetic Materials
No Applied Applied
Magnetic Field (H = 0) Magnetic Field (H)

random

aligned
• In presence of magnetic field the
• material gets feebly magnetized i.e. the material allows few magnetic lines
of force to pass through it.

• Relative permeability µr >1 (barely, ≈ 1.00001 to 1.01).

• The orientation of magnetic dipoles depends on temperature and applied field.

• Susceptibility is independent of applied mag. field & depends on temperature
• C is Curie constant
• With increase in temperature susceptibility decreases.
• Susceptibility is small and positive.
• These materials are used in lasers.
• Paramagnetic property of oxygen is used in NMR technique for medical diagnose.
• The susceptibility range from 10-5 to 10-2.
• Examples: alkali metals (Li, Na, K, Rb), transition metals, Al, Pt, Mn, Cr etc.
Ferromagnetic Materials
 Properties
• Permanent dipoles are present so possess net magnetic moment.
• Origin for magnetism in Ferro mag. Materials is due to Spin magnetic moment
of electrons.
• Material shows magnetic properties even in the absence of external magnetic
field.
• Possess spontaneous magnetization.
• Spontaneous magnetization is because of interaction between dipoles called
EXCHANGE COUPLING.
 No Applied Applied
Magnetic Field (H = 0) Magnetic Field (H)

aligned

aligned
 Magnetic susceptibility is as high as 106.

 So H << M. thus Bs = µoMs

Ferromagnetic
Magnetic inductionB (tesla)

Strength of applied magnetic field (H)

(ampere-turns/m)
• When placed in external mag. field it strongly attracts magnetic lines of force.
• All spins are aligned parallel & in same direction.
• Susceptibility is large and positive, it is given by Curie Weiss Law.
• C is Curie constant & θ is Curie temperature.
• When temp is greater than curie temp then the material gets converted in to
paramagnetic.
• Material gets divided into small regions called domains.
• They possess the property of HYSTERESIS.
• Examples: Fe, Co, Ni.
 Ferro Magnetic Materials

Even when H = 0, the dipoles

tend to strongly align over
small patches.

When H is applied, the domains

align to produce a large net
magnetization.
 Thermal energy can randomize the spin

Tcurie
Ferromagnetic Heat
Paramagnetic

Tc for different materials:

Fe=1043 K, Ni=631 K,
Co=1400 K, Gd= 298 K
 Curie Temperature

 The temperature above (Tc) which ferromagnetic material become paramagnetic.

 Below the Curie temperature, the ferromagnetic is ordered and above it,
disordered.

 The saturation magnetization goes to zero at the Curie temperature.

Antiferro magnetic
Material
 Properties
• The spin alignment is in antiparallel manner.

• So net magnetic moment is zero.

• Susceptibility depends on temperature.

• Susceptibility is small and positive.

• Initially susceptibility increases with increase in temperature and beyond

Neel temperature the susceptibility decreases with temperature.
• At Neel temperature susceptibility is maximum.

• Examples: FeO, MnO, Cr2O3 and salts of transition elements.

 Magnetic materials applications
FERRITE APPLICATIONS
Ferrites Being Ferro-magnetic but high resistivity

Used as transformer cores eddy currents less effective

Used as induction cores, antennas for medium and long wave broad
casting, electronic tuning, auto frequency control, FM, switching etc.

 Since ferrites have a domains & hysteresis loop they are used as memory
elements for rapid storage and retrieval of digital information by switching
the direction of magnetization in very small toroidal cores.
 Garnets (Y3Fe5O12) are useful in microwave applications.
 Magnetic recording uses ferrite material in powder form.
 Ferrites can be used as magnets.
 Transformer Core
Properties:
 Should be ceramic in nature.
 Should have very high permeability.
 The material should have very high susceptibility.
 The material should have low corrosive field and low remeanent field.
 Magnetostriction should be small.

--Best example is Iron-Silicon alloy (97%

Fe & 3% Si)
--Fe-Si (alloy) anisotropic poly crystalline
materials can develop via plastic
deformation, for example by rolling.
-- For body centred cubic alloys including Fe-Si alloy, the rolling texture is
(1 1 0) [0 0 1].
 Magnetic Storage Devices
• Information is stored by magnetizing material due to high retentivity.

• Head can...
--apply magnetic field H & align domains
(i.e., magnetize the medium).
--detect a change in the magnetization of
the medium.

Recording Head: Soft Magnetic Materials

Ex: Fe-Ni, Fe-Al-Si alloy, Mn-Zn ferrite,
Ni-Zn ferrite
Recording Principle (Digital)
How Magnetic Storage Works

 A magnetic disk's medium contains iron

particles, which can be polarized—given
a magnetic charge—in one of two
directions.

 Each particle's direction represents a 1

(on) or 0 (off), representing each bit of
data that the CPU can recognize.

 A disk drive uses read/write heads

containing electromagnets to create
magnetic charges on the medium.
Magnetic Storage Devices
 Magnetic Storage Devices

• There are two types of magnetic storage media.

• Those are particulate and thin film.

• Particulate media consist of very small needle like or acicular particles.

• Ex: γ-Fe2O3 ferrite, Co- γ- Fe2O3 ferrite and CrO2 .
 Magnetic Storage Devices
Thin film: It provides higher storage capacities at lower costs.
Ex: Co-Pt-Cr alloy, Co-Cr-Ta alloy (thickness 10 to 50 nm).Domains are ~ 10-30nm!
(hard drive)
• The thin film is a poly crystalline material.
• Each grain within the thin film is a single magnetic domain.
• The grain shape and size must be uniform.

~60 nm
 Magnetic Storage Devices
Thin film:
Magnetic Tapes
©2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning™ is a trademark used herein under license.
 MOTORS
 Hard magnetic materials are used.

 Motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.

 No heat is generated during operation.

 Motors using permanent magnets are much smaller than their

electromagnets motors.

http://www.animations.physics.unsw.edu.au/jw/electricmotors.html