Data collection

•Definition of data
– An organised collection of related information
– Facts; things known or granted
– Information from which conclusions can be
drawn
• Sources of data
a) Primary source
b) Secondary source
• Primary data are obtained by a study to
fulfil the needs of the problem at hand.
Such data is original
• Secondary data is that data not originally
collected but rather obtained from
published or unpublished sources
 Advantages of primary data
i. Free of transcription / transformation
errors
ii. Includes definitions of terms and units
used
iii. Shows data in greater detail
 Advantages of secondary data
i. Convenient to use in terms of cost, time
and effort of processing
ii. Available in some subjects where it
could be impossible to collect primary
data e.g census data
 Choice between primary and
secondary data
Depends on:
i) The nature and scope of the enquiry
ii) Availability of the financial resources
iii) Availability of time
iv) Degree of accuracy desired
v) The collecting agency – an individual, an
institution or a government agency
Precaution in the use of secondary
data
Consider the following aspects:
i. Whether the data is suitable for the
purpose of investigation in view
nature and scope of investigation (unit of
measurement, definition of classes, date/
period under consideration)
ii. Whether the data are adequate for the
investigation e.g geographical area
covered, time period etc
iii. Whether the data are reliable
– Which method of data collection was used?
– Was the data collection agency unbiased?
– If sampling was done, was it adequate?
– Were enumerators capable and properly
trained?
– Was there proper check on the accuracy of
field work?
– Was editing, tabulation and analysis carefully
done?
 Qualities of good data
a) Adequacy of data:
Ensure data is sufficient for the information
requirements of the study to support
research findings and conclusions.
b) Reliability of data:
The data, including its source, should be
accurate and consistent to ensure that
findings are free from unnecessary errors
or bias.
c) Validity of data:
Valid data is that which is tailored to the
purpose of the study. It should fulfill the
objectives of the study, research questions
or hypothesis.
d) Up datedness /currency of the data:
Data obtained from primary or secondary
sources must be relatively recent. Obsolete
data may not reflect current trends
 RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS
• Are tools which assist the researcher to
collect data.
• Common instruments are:
i. Questionnaires
ii. Interview schedules
iii. Observation schedules
iv. Rating scales
v. tests
 Questionnaires
• Are to most commonly used instruments
• Each item in the questionnaire addresses
a specific objective, research question or
hypothesis of the study
• Before including an item in the
questionnaire, you should understand how
it will be analysed
 Consequences of a poorly
designed questionnaire
1) May confuse the respondents as to what
information is required
2) May discourage respondents hence
discard it
3) May leave out important information
required in the study
4) May collect irrelevant information to the
study
 Types of questionnaire items
a) Structured or closed items
- Questions are accompanied by a list of
possible alternatives from which the
respondent selects the answer that best
fits his / her situation.
- In most cases it is impossible to exhaust
all alternatives. In such a case it is
customary to include a category called
“Other” and require the respondent to
specify
Advantages of closed ended items
i) Are easy to analyse
ii) Are easy to respond to
iii) Economical to use in terms of space
given no extra of writing is required
 Disadvantages of closed ended
items
1) Difficult to construct
2) Bias can be introduced depending on the
disposition of the writer
 Unstructured or open ended
questions
• Questions which give the respondent
complete freedom of response.
• Allows respondents to respond in their
own words.
• In some cases a phrase or figure is
needed
• The amount of space given may be an
indicator of the length of response
required
 Advantages of open ended
questions
a) Permit a greater depth of response
b) Easy to formulate
c) Give room for expression of personal
feelings
 Disadvantages of open ended
items
a) Irrelevant information can be generated
b) Responses given may be difficult to
categorise hence difficult to analyse
c) Responding is time consuming
 Qualities of a good questionnaire
i) Each questionnaire should have an
introduction or cover letter. Brief but
contains adequate information about the
research:
- Spells out the purpose of the study
- Gives assurance of confidentiality
- Time lines (deadlines) if any are provided
ii) Short but captures the objectives
iii) Brief clear instructions provided on how
to respond
iv) All pages and items are numbered
v) Typesetting properly done
vi) Language used easy to understand
vii) Short questions used
viii) Each question deals with a single idea
ix) Biased questions are avoided
x) Personal and sensitive questions are
avoided
xi) Psychologically threatening questions
are avoided
xii) Related items are grouped together
 Pre – testing a questionnaire
This is trying out a questionnaire
Done in two ways:
a) Using experts – people who understand
instrument development and are
conversant with the subject area. Will
critique on content and technical accuracy
b) Using a small sample similar to the study
sample. Subjects are encouraged to make
suggestions on instructions, clarity of
questions and relevance
 Administration of a questionnaire
Two methods:
a) Researcher administered:
The researcher reads the questions to
the respondent. Gets the answers and
fills the form
b) Self administered:
The questionnaires are sent to the
respondents by hand delivery or by mail
 Rating scales
• A scale consists of the lowest and the
highest point. Lickert type of scales are the
most common. Contains 3 – 5 point
categories
• Statements are provided and the
respondents are required to rank or rate
them in accordance with instructions
provided
• Common points include:
1 Poor
2 Fair
3 Good
4 Very good
5 excellent
or
1 Strongly disagree
2 Disagree
3 Agree
4 Strongly agree
Note: Before using the scale points,
consider the framing of the statement so
that it grammatically consistent
Example of questionnaire with rating items
 Advantages of rating scale items
i) Qualitative constructs can be analysed
quantitatively
ii) Easy to respond to
iii) Space is used efficiently
 Interviews
• A face to face method of data collection
• An oral administration of an interview
schedule
• An interview schedule can contain
structured, semi structured or unstructured
items
• Structured questions usually have
categories with responses which the
interviewer simply checks
• Unstructured questions act as a guide
during interviewing. Additional probing
questions are developed to get deeper
information
• Semi structured schedule contains both
structured and unstructured questions
 Rules pertaining interviews
i) Interviewer must be pleasant
ii) Interviewer must show genuine interest
in the respondent without appearing like
a spy of some sort
iii) Interviewer should be relaxed and
friendly but avoid being casual
iv) Interviewer should be familiar with the
interview schedule
v) Inform the interviewee about
confidentiality of information
vi) Avoid leading questions
vii) Remain neutral and ask probing
questions where necessary
viii) Make appointment where necessary
before interview
 Advantages of interviews
1) Provide in-depth data which is not
possible through questionnaire
2) Interviewer can clarify questions leading
to more relevant information
3) Are flexible to conduct
4) Sensitive and personal information can
be extracted depending on rapport
established
5 Yield a high response rate
 Disadvantages
1 Expensive
2 Require a high level of skill to conduct
3 Chances of bias are high
4 Time consuming
5 Generally involve small samples
 Note taking during interviews
• A record of answers should be kept for
each interviewee for each individual item
• Make comments on observations made
e.g gestures displayed – embarrassment,
anger, uncertainty etc.
 Advantages of note taking
• Facilitates analysis
• Information is not forgotten or omitted
 Disadvantages of note taking
i. May interfere with communication
ii. Makes it difficult to maintain rapport
iii. May upset an interviewee especially if
the answers are personal and sensitive
iv. Makes interviewing a lengthy process
 Tape recording
Advantages:
i) Captures all the data
ii) Can be played back for in depth analysis
iii) Other persons can categorise the data
iv) Speeds up the interview
v) Communication is not interupted
Disadvantages:
i) Presence of the tape may make the
respondent nervous
ii) Respondents may be unwilling to give
sensitive information
iii) Transcribing the tapes analysis of
information is time consuming
iv) Telephone interviews can be expensive
 Observation form / schedule /
check list
• An observation form helps the researcher
to record what he / she observes. The
researcher must define the behaviours or
items to be observed
• In some studies rating scales may be
embedded in the observation form
• An example of an observation form is the
KTTC teaching practice assessment form