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Chapter 4.

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skkhuhro034
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© © All Rights Reserved
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Chapter 4

DEDUCTION AND INDUCTION Arguments


DEDUCTION AND INDUCTION
Arguments
Before we can effectively evaluate an argument, we need to understand
what kind of argument is being offered. Traditionally, arguments have
been divided into two types:
deductive arguments and inductive arguments. Because the standards
for evaluating deductive and inductive arguments are quite different, it is
important to understand the difference between these two types of
arguments. All arguments claim to provide support that is, evidence or
reasons for their conclusions. But arguments differ greatly in the amount
of support they claim to provide. Deductive arguments try to prove their
conclusions with rigorous, inescapable logic. Inductive arguments try to
show that their conclusions are plausible or likely given the premises.
Example of deductive reasoning arguments
• If someone is a doctor, then they have a medical degree.
Anas is a doctor.
Therefore, Anas has a medical degree.
• If it is raining, then the ground is wet.
It is raining.
Therefore, the ground is wet.
• If a country has a democratic government, then its leaders are elected
by popular vote.
The United States has a democratic government.
Therefore, its leaders are elected by popular vote.
Notice how the conclusions of these arguments flow from the premises
with a kind of inescapable logic. Each argument’s conclusion follows
necessarily from the premises. Arguments are deductive when their
premises are in tended to provide this kind of rigorous, airtight logical
support for their conclusions.
• Deductive arguments claim to provide logically conclusive grounds for
their conclusions. That is, they attempt to show that their conclusions
must be true given the premises asserted. Inductive arguments, on
the other hand, simply claim that their conclusions are likely or
probable given the premises offered.
Here are some examples of inductive arguments.
• Most of the students at the university are under 25 years old.
Clara is a student at the university.
Therefore, Clara is likely under 25 years old.
• Every summer for the past ten years, it has rained heavily in June.
• It is June.
Therefore, it will probably rain heavily this month.
• In the past, when the stock market has risen steadily for three consecutive months,
it usually continues to rise in the fourth month. The stock market has risen steadily
for the past three months. Therefore, the stock market will likely continue to rise
this month.
In previous elections, candidates who spend more money on their campaigns tend to
win. Candidate A is spending significantly more money on their campaign than
Candidate B.
Therefore,
C OMMON PATTERNS OF DEDUCTIVE
REASONING
• In this section we discuss common patterns of deductive reasoning:
• hypothetical syllogism
• categorical syllogism
• Hypothetical Syllogism
A syllogism is a three-line argument, that is, an argument that consists
of exactly two premises and a conclusion. A hypothetical syllogism is a
syllogism that contains at least one hypothetical or conditional (i.e., if-
then ) premise.
If the scientist's hypothesis is correct, then the experiment will yield
positive results.
The scientist's hypothesis is correct.
Therefore, the experiment will yield positive results.
• If a book is returned to the library on time, then no late fees will be
incurred.
The book is returned to the library on time.
Therefore, no late fees will be incurred.
If a student completes all their assignments on time, then they will pass
the course.
Ali completes all their assignments on time.
Therefore, Ali will pass the course.
Categorical Syllogism
Another common pattern of deductive reasoning is categorical
syllogism. For present purposes, a categorical syllogism may bedefined
as a three-line argument in which each statement begins with the word
all, some, or no. Here are two examples,
Some vehicles are electric cars.
All electric cars are eco-friendly.
Therefore, some vehicles are eco-friendly.
C OMMON PATTERNS OF INDUCTIVE REASONING In this section we
look at common patterns of inductive reasoning:
• inductive generalization
• predictive argument
Inductive Generalization
• A generalization, as that term is used in critical thinking, is a
statement that attributes some characteristic to all or most members
of a given class. Here are some examples of generalizations.
• Last year I visited Paris and met a baker who was polite. Six months
ago I met a teacher from Paris, and she was polite. Last month I met a
tour guide from Paris, and he was polite.
I guess most people from Paris are polite.
Predictive Argument
A prediction is a statement about what may or will happen in the future. In
a predictive argument, a prediction is defended with reasons. Predictive
arguments are among the most common patterns of inductive reasoning.
Most U.S. presidents have been tall.
Therefore, probably the next U.S. president will be tall.
Most bestselling novels in recent years have been written by authors who
use social media extensively.
Therefore, probably the next bestselling novel will be written by an author
who uses social media extensively.

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