Radio Wave Propagation

Modes of Propagation
• Waves from the transmitting ant reach the
receiving ant following any of the following
modes
• Ground wave or surface wave propagation
(upto 2 MHz)
• Sky wave or ionospheric propagation (2 to 30
Mhz)
• Space wave propagation (> 30 MHz)
 Ground wave or surface wave propagation
(upto 2 MHz)
• It is of practical importance at broadcast and lower
frequencies i.e. for medium waves, long waves and very
long waves.
• It is guided along the surface of the earth.
• Surface wave permits propagation around the curvature of
earth
• This mode exist whenever the transmitting and receiving
ants are close to the surface of earth and is supported at its
lower edge by the presence of ground.
• Generally produced by vertical ant and is vertically
polarized. Any horizontal component is short circuited by
the earth.
• The ground wave suffers varying amount of attenuation while
propagating along the curvature of earth depending upon freq,
surface irregularities, permittivity and conductivity.
• Earths attenuation increases as the freq increases and hence
this mode is suitable for low and medium freqs i.e. upto 2 MHz.
• Besides ground attenuation there is another way the wave is
attenuated. i.e. due to diffraction and tilt in the wave front. As
the wave progress over the curvature of earth the wave front
start gradually tilting more and more.
• This increase in the tilt of the wave causes more and more short
ckt of the electric field component and hence field strength
goes on reducing. At some appreciable distance from
transmitting ant, surface wave dies.
• Distance of propagation depends not only on freq but also on
power.
 Sky wave or Ionospheric propagation
(2 to 30 Mhz)

• It is of practical importance at medium and high freqs

(i.e. at medium and short waves) for long distance radio
communications.
• EM wave reaches the receiving point after reflection
from the ionized region in the upper atmosphere called
ionosphere situated between 50 kms to 400 kms above
earths surface.
• Ionosphere acts as a reflecting surface and is able to
reflect back the freqs between 2 to 30 MHz.
• EM freqs above 30 MHz are not reflected back rather
they penetrate.
• It is also called short wave propagation
• Since long distance point to point
communication is possible it is also called point
to point propagation.
• Extremely long distance i.e. round the globe
commn is possible with multiple reflections.
• Beyond 30 MHz sky wave fails as the
wavelength becomes too short to be reflected
by the ionosphere.
 Space wave propagation
• It is of practical importance at VHF, UHF and
microwaves (between 30 MHz to 300 Mhz)
• Communications like television, radar, freq
modulations etc utilize this mode of
propagation.
• EM waves reach the receiving ant either
directly or after reflections from the ground in
the earths tropospheric region which extends
upto 16 kms from earth surface.
• Space wave consists of two components,
direct comp and indirect comp or ground
reflected comp. Hence the strength of the
resultant signal may be stronger or weaker.
• It is also called line of sight propagation.
• Line of sight distance can be extended by
satellite communication.
• Structure of Atmosphere
– Structure of troposphere
– Structure of ionosphere
– Structure of outer atmosphere
 Structure of Troposphere
• Extends up to a height of
– 8 to 10 km at polar latitude,
– 10 to 12 km at moderate latitude and
– 16 to 18 km at equator.
– On an average it is extending up to a height of 15 km from
earths surface. Height is least at poles and max at equator.
• Although the percentage of gas components remain
almost constant with increase in height, water vapour
components sharply decrease with height.
• Temperature decreases with increase in height and
falls to a minimum of -68 F
• After the top of troposphere, tropopause
starts and ends the beginning of stratopause
or a region of calm. In this temp remains
uniform throughout narrow belt and begins to
increase afterwards. In the stratosphere no
intermixing due to air currents take place
• Thus the composition of atmosphere varies
with height and stratification begins.
 continued
• Refractive index of troposphere at the surface of earth is
just 0.0003% greater than unity. Therefore variation in RI is
considered.
N=(µ-1)X10-6 where N- excessive RI over unity
dN/dh = - 4.45X10 -2
• Troposphere accounts for 4/5 th of entire mass thought it is
relatively low height.
• Average pressure at earth surface is 1014 millibars
(1 bar=105 N/m2). It is almost half at a height of 5 km, 2.5
millibars at a height of 11 km and 90 millibars at height of
17 km. Thus troposphere is inhomogeneous medium whose
RI varies with height and so also velocity of propagation.
 Structure of Ionosphere
• Ionization is appreciable in this region.
• Upper part of earths atmosphere absorb large quantities of radiant
energy from the sun. This not only heats the atmosphere but also
produces ionization. The ionized region thus consists of free electrons,
+ve ions and –ve ions. The most important ionizing agents are UV,
alpha, beta, cosmic rays.
• In a gas under low pressure it is possible to knock off one to two
electrons out of gas molecule. When a molecule donate one electron it
becomes +vely charges ion, which accepts becomes -vely charges ion
• At high atmosphere, the conditions are very much favorable for
ionization and the pressure is low and the sun is constantly radiating
UV rays.
• When UV and cosmic rays reach upper atmosphere they cause large
proportion of the air particles to become ionized.
• Since they are in motion, frequent collisions continued all the time.
Hence process of recombination will occur.
 continued
• In lower part of earth atmosphere as the pressure is
high air molecules do not remain ionized for a
longer time. Besides UV rays from the sun are
greatly absorbed by the upper part of atmosphere
and so there is little ionization in lower part of the
earth below about 50 km.
• Above a height of 400 km the air particles are so
few that density of ionization is very low.
Considerable ionization exists in the intermediate
height between 50 km to 400 km
 continued
• Since sky waves of different freqs are found to return to
earth from different heights, it means ionosphere is not
having one but many layers. The different layers are due to
the fact that different gases in earth atmosphere are
ionised at different pressures and different ionizing agents
to do ionization.
• Thus due to different ionizing agents and different physical
properties of atmosphere at different heights there are
different layers
• The no of layers , their heights, and the amount of sky
wave bent by them will vary from day to day, month to
month and year to year.
• For each layer there is a critical freq above which if a radio
 continued

• There are three principal layers during day time

called E, F1, F2. Besides these there is a region
below E called D region which lies between 50 to
90 km and is much responsible for day time
attenuation of high frequencies. During night F1
and F2 layers combine to form F layer and D layer
vanishes altogether. Thus in night only two layers
exist i.e.,E and F layers.
• F layer is known as Appleton layer and E layer as
Heaviside layer after scientists name.
 Characteristics of different ionized regions
• D region
– Located at a height range from 50 to 90 km.
– Present only during day time and disappears at night because
recombination rate is highest at night. This is due to the fact that
degree of ionization depends on altitude of sun and during
sunset recombination increases resulting in vanishing of D payer.
– Ionization density is maximum at noon and its electron density is
ranging from 1014 to 1016 per cubic centimeter.
– It is capable of reflecting very long waves and long waves.
– Its critical freq is about 100 kHz.
– It is also known as absorbing layer for short wave signals. (HF)
since density is not enough to effect appreciable bending of
radio waves and hence they suffer attenuation while passing.
• Normal E region
• Located at a height range from 90 to 140 km having max at 110 km.
• Occurs during day light hours and has max density at 110 km which
has a appreciable effect on the direction of propagation of radio
waves.
• During night, E region remains weakly ionized and during day light
hours its height remains practically constant.
• Electron density is low in winter and high in summer.
• Critical freq range is 3 MHz to 5 MHz
• E region is formed by ionization of all gases by soft X-ray radiations.
• E layer is most useful layer for long distance radio propagation
during day light hours
• The main function of E layer is to reflect some HF waves in day
hours.
• Sporadic E region
– Presence is very irregular , hence the name
sporadic.
– It usually occurs in the form of clouds varying in
size from about one km to several hundred km
– Its occurrence is quite unpredictable and it may be
observed both in day and night hours and in any
season of the year.
– It is very thin layer of high ionization density and
may appear anywhere in the height range of 90
km to 130 km with normal E layer.
• Origin of Es layer is due to different causes at
different times. Sometimes they may be
produced by meteoric ionization, at other
times due to vertical transport of ion clouds
i.e., by infiltration of charged particles from
overlaying F2 layer due to turbulent motion of
air masses. Thunder storm or geomagnetic
disturbances are also the causes.
 F1, F2, F regions or Appleton region
• Lies between 140 km to 400 kms, average height around
270 km.
• It is the only region which remains ionized irrespective
of hours of day or seasons of the year.
• Facilitates long distance sky wave propagation even
during night hrs also.
• The existence of F-layer in the night hrs is due to
– Being topmost layer , it is highly ionized and hence some
ionization remains even after sunset.
– Although ionization density is high the actual air density is
not much and hence most of the molecules of this layer
remain ionized.
• During day after sunrise F region is split into two layers
called F1 and F2
• F1 layer
– Average height at 220 kms
– Its critical freq is 5 MHz to 7 MHz.
– It is formed by ionization of oxygen atoms.
– HF waves are reflected from F1 layer but mostly
penetrate it and is reflected from F2 layer. Hence
more effect of F1 layer is to provide absorption of
HF waves.
• F2 layer
– It is the uppermost layer, height ranges from 250 to 400
kms in day having highest ionization density of all
ionospheric layers. Falls to 300 km at night.
– Air density is low, hence ionization disappears very
slowely.
– Critical freq is 10 Mhz, sometimes ranges from 5 Mhz to
12 Mhz.
– The ionization of F2 layer is effected largely by earths
magnetic field, atmospheric and ionospheric storms
and other geomagnetic disturbances.
• Overall, with sky wave it is possible to cover any
distance round the earth by multiple reflections.
 Sky wave propagation
• Much higher freqs are penetrated by
ionospheric layer, sky wave propagation is
used but limited by light of sight distance.
• Communications like televisions, radar, freq
modulations etc utilize this mode of
propagation.
• EM waves reach the receiving ant either
directly or after reflections from ground in
earths tropospheric region
 Propagation of waves through ionosphere
(neglecting earths magnetic field)

• In the ionized medium having free electrons and

ions, when the radio waves passes through, it
sets these particles into motion. Since the mass
of ions is heavier than electrons so their
motions are negligibly small and neglected for
practical purposes.
• The radio waves passing through ionosphere are
influenced by electrons only and electric field of
radio waves sets these electrons into motion.
• These electrons vibrate along the paths parallel to the electric
field of radio waves and vibrating electrons constitute ac
current proportional to the velocity of vibration.
• Effect of earths magnetic field on the vibration of ionosperic
electrons lags behind the electric field resulting in electron
current to be inductive.
• The actual current flowing through the volume of space in the
ionosphere consists of two components
– Usual capacitive component which leads the voltage by 90 deg
– Electron current which lags the voltage by 90 deg and hence
subtracted from capacitive current.
• Thus free electrons in space decrease the current and so the
dielectric constant of space is also reduced below the value in
the absence of electron.
• The reduction in dielectric constant due to the presence of
electrons in the ionosphere causes the path of radio waves to
bend towards earth i.e. from high electron density to lower
electron density.
• The actual current flowing through the volume
of space in the ionosphere consists of two
components
– Usual capacitive component which leads the
voltage by 90 deg
– Electron current which lags the voltage by 90 deg
and hence subtracted from capacitive current.
 Mechanism of radio wave bending by
ionosphere
81N
  r  1 2
f

• N- ionic density
• If ionic density is higher and freq is lower, then
RI becomes imaginary, radio waves are
attenuated at this freq and ionosphere in not
able to transmit or bend the radio waves.
• Bending of radio waves is governed by Snells law,
sin i

• Since mu < 1, sin i<sin r sin r
• i.e., angle of refraction will go on deviating from
normal as the wave encounter rarer medium
• If successive layers have higher electron density, mu
will go on decreasing
• Then the wave enters some point P at which angle of
refraction is 90 and point P is the highest point
reached by radio wave.
• At point Pm , If µm is the RI and Nmax the max electron
density, then   sin i
m m
• Point Pm is called point of reflection. At this point, TIR
takes place and wave gets bent and ultimately returns to
earth.
• Smaller the angle of incidence i, smaller the RI, which
implies higher should be the electron density needed to
return the radio wave back to the earth.
• For vertical incidence, mu becomes zero and this
corresponds to the max electron density of the layer and
freq correspond to critical freq, i.e., max freq which can
be reflected by the layer for vertical incidence called
critical frequency.
• Critical frequency, fc: of an ionized layer is
defined as the highest freq which can be
reflected by a particular layer at vertical
incidence. i=0
• It is different for different layers.
sin i 81N m
  1 2
0
sin r fc
fc  9 Nm

• Where fc in Mhz and Nm in cubic metre.

• If electron density is known critical frequency
can be calculated.
• Radio waves of freq equal to or less than fc
will be reflected back irrespective of angle of
incidence.
• Radio wave of freq greater than critical freq
will also be return back to earth when the
angle of incidence sufficiently large which
satisfies the eqn  m  sin im
 Effect of earths magnetic field on ionospheric radio
wave
• Radio wave propagating in atmosphere which is not ionized is
not effected by earths magnetic field.
• In ionized medium the electrons are set into motion by the
electric field of the radio wave and earths magnetic field
exerts a force on the vibrating electrons producing twisting
effect on their paths. This reacts on the incident radio waves.
• Earths magnetic field splits the radio waves into two
components, ordinary and extra ordinary waves. The two rays
are bent by different amounts by ionosphere travel along
different paths. They have elliptical polarization.
• Splitting of radio waves into two components is called
magneto ionic splitting. Their critical freq is also different.
• Besides splitting, it effects polarization of the incident wave.
• The electrons which are set in simple harmonic motion are set
into elliptical or spiral motion.
 Virtual height
• The wave is bent down gradually than sharpely. The
actual path is a curve and is due to refraction of the
wave.
• During measurements of height of the ionospheric
layer, the wave is considered to be reflected rather than
refracted. Therefore the path is assumed to be straight
• Virtual height is greater than actual height.
• If the virtual height is known then it is easy to calculate
the angle of incidence required for the wave to return
to earth.
• It is defined as the height to which a short pulse of
energy sent vertically upward and travelling with a
speed of light would reach taking the same two
ways travel time as does the actual pulse reflected
from the layer.
• While measuring the virtual height the transmitting
and the receiving point are usually placed very
close together so that the wave is sent nearly
vertically upward.
• Virtual height, h=cT/2
 Maximum Usable Frequency(MUF)
• When the freq of the radio wave is greater than the critical
freq, then the influence of ionospheric layer on the path of
propagation depends on the angle of incidence at the
ionosphere.
• MUF is the limiting freq which can be reflected back to the
earth for some specific angle of incidence rather than vertical.
• It is defined as the max possible value of freq for which
reflection takes place for a given distance of propagation is
called MUF for that distance and for a given ionospheric layer.
• If wave is higher than this, then the wave penetrates into the
ionized layer and does not reflect back.
• MUF is different for each pair of points on the globe.
• Normal range of MUF vary from 8 MHz to 35 MHz.
• For sky wave to return to earth, angle of refraction =90 deg, N=Nmax
and f=fmax

sin i 81N m
  1 2
sin 90 f muf
2
f c  81N m
2
fc
sin i  1  2
f muf
2
fc
sin 2 i  1  2
f muf
f muf  sec i. f c

• Which indicates muf for a layer is greater than fc by a factor of sec i. This
is known as secant law which gives max usable freq for a given angle of
incidence between two points on he earth. This equation can be applied
safely upto a distance of 1000km. As the distance is increased limit
 Skip distance
• Radio waves radiated horizontally gets quickly
absorbed, radio waves radiated at high angle may
not be bent sufficiently and penetrates into layer.
• Between the distance at which surface wave
becomes negligible and the distance at which first
wave returns to earththere is a zone which is not
covered by any wave. This is called skip distance.
• If receiver is placed in skip distance no signal is
received.
• Skip Distance: Minimum distance from the
transmitter at which the sky wave of given freq is
returned to earth by the ionosphere. Represented
by D
• Higher the freq, higher the skip distance.
• For a freq less than the critical freq of a layer skip
distance is zero.
• As the angle of incidence at the ionosphere
decreases, skip distance decreases. With further
decrease in angle of incidence wave penetrates.