Computer Networks

Module 1-Subsection-2 and 3

Signals, Encoding and Modulation

By

Dr. Shahana Gajala Qureshi

Data and Signals
 A signal is an electrical or electromagnetic current that is used for carrying
data from one device or network to another.
 In signal processing, a signal is a function that conveys information about a
phenomenon.
 The IEEE Transactions on Signal Processing includes audio, video,
speech, image, and radar as examples of signal.
 A signal may also be defined as any observable change in a quantity over
space or time (a time series), even if it does not carry information.
 There are two main types of signals used in electronics: analog and digital
signals.
 Both data and the signals that represent them can be either analog or digital
in form.
Analog and Digital Data
 Data can be analog or digital. The term analog data refers to information
that is continuous; digital data refers to information that has discrete
states.

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Data and Signals Cont...
For example, an analog clock that has hour, minute, and second hands gives
information in a continuous form; the movements of the hands are
continuous. On the other hand, a digital clock that reports the hours and the
minutes will change suddenly from 8:05 to 8:06.
 Analog data, such as the sounds made by a human voice, take on continuous
values. When someone speaks, an analog wave is created in the air. This can
be captured by a microphone and converted to an analog signal or sampled
and converted to a digital signal.
 Digital data take on discrete values. For example, data are stored in computer
memory in the form of Os and 1s. They can be converted to a digital signal
or modulated into an analog signal for transmission across a medium.
Analog and Digital Signals
 Like the data they represent, signals can be either analog or digital. An analog
signal has infinitely many levels of intensity over a period of time.
 As the wave moves from value A to value B, it passes through and includes
an infinite number of values along its path.
 A digital signal, on the other hand, can have only a limited number of
defined values. Although each value can be any number, it is often as simple
as 1 and O.
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Data and Signals Cont...
 The simplest way to show signals is by plotting them on a pair of perpendicular
axes. The vertical axis represents the value or strength of a signal. The
horizontal axis represents time.

 The curve representing the analog signal passes through an infinite number of
points. The vertical lines of the digital signal, however, demonstrate the sudden
jump that the signal makes from value to value.
Periodic and Non-periodic Signals
 Both analog and digital signals can take one of two forms: periodic or non-
periodic.
 A periodic signal completes a pattern within a measurable time frame, called a
period, and repeats that pattern over subsequent identical periods. The completion
of one full pattern is called a cycle. A non-periodic signal changes without
exhibiting a pattern or cycle that repeats over time. 4
Data and Signals Cont...
 Both analog and digital signals can be periodic or non-periodic. In data
communications, we commonly use periodic analog signals (because they
need less bandwidth) and non-periodic digital signals.
Periodic Analog Signals
 Periodic analog signals can be classified as simple or composite. A simple
periodic analog signal, a sine wave, cannot be decomposed into simpler
signals. A composite periodic analog signal is composed of multiple sine
waves.
Sine Wave
 The sine wave is the most fundamental form of a periodic analog signal.
When we visualize it as a simple oscillating curve, its change over the course
of a cycle is smooth and consistent, a continuous, rolling flow.

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Data and Signals Cont...
 Each cycle consists of a single arc above the time axis followed by a single arc.
 A sine wave can be represented by three parameters: the peak amplitude, the
frequency, and the phase. These three parameters fully describe a sine wave.
A. Peak Amplitude
 The peak amplitude of a signal is the absolute value of its highest intensity,
proportional to the energy it carries. For electric signals, peak amplitude is
normally measured in volts.

Example-1: The power in your house can be represented by a sine wave with a
peak amplitude of 155 to 170 V. However, it is common knowledge that the
voltage of the power in U.S. homes is 110 to 120 V.

 This discrepancy is due to the fact that these are root mean square (rms) values.
The signal is squared and then the average amplitude is calculated. The peak
value is equal to 2112 x rms value.

Example-1I: The voltage of battery is a constant; this constant value can be

considered a sine wave, as we will see later. For example, the peak value of an
AA battery is normally 1.5 V.
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Data and Signals Cont...

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Data and Signals Cont...

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Data and Signals Cont...
B. Period and Frequency
 Period refers to the amount of time, in seconds, a signal needs to complete 1
cycle. Frequency refers to the number of periods in I s. Note that period and
frequency are just one characteristic defined in two ways. Period is the
inverse of frequency, and frequency is the inverse of period, as the
following formulas show.

Note: Frequency and period are the inverse of each other.

 Period is formally expressed in seconds. Frequency is formally expressed in
Hertz (Hz), which is cycle per second.

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Data and Signals Cont...
Table of Units of period and frequency

Question1: The power we use at home has a frequency of 60 Hz (50 Hz in

Europe). Determine the period of this sine wave.

Question1I.: Express a period of 100 ms in microseconds.

Question 111: The period of a signal is 100 ms. What is its frequency in
kilohertz?

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Data and Signals Cont...
C. Phase
 The term phase describes the position of the waveform relative to time O. If
we think of the wave as something that can be shifted backward or forward
along the time axis, phase describes the amount of that shift. It indicates the
status of the first cycle.

Note: Phase describes the position of the waveform relative to time O.

 Phase is measured in degrees or radians [360° is 2n rad; 1° is 2n/360 rad, and

1 rad is 360/(2n)]. A phase shift of 360° corresponds to a shift of a complete
period; a phase shift of 180° corresponds to a shift of one-half of a period;
and a phase shift of 90° corresponds to a shift of one-quarter of a period

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Data and Signals Cont...

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Data and Signals Cont...
I. A sine wave with a phase of 0° starts at time 0 with a zero amplitude. The
amplitude is increasing.
2. A sine wave with a phase of 90° starts at time 0 with a peak amplitude. The
amplitude is decreasing.
3. A sine wave with a phase of 180° starts at time 0 with a zero amplitude. The
amplitude is decreasing.
OR
1. A sine wave with a phase of 0° is not shifted.
2. A sine wave with a phase of 90° is shifted to the left by 1/4 cycle. However,
note that the signal does not really exist before time O.
3. A sine wave with a phase of 180° is shifted to the left by 1/2 cycle. However,
note that the signal does not really exist before time O.
characteristics of Analog Signal :
 These sort of electronic signals are time-varying.
 lowest and highest values which is either positive or negative.
 It are often either periodic or non-periodic.
 Analog Signal works on continuous data.
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Data and Signals Cont...
 The accuracy of the analog signal isn’t high in comparison to the digital
signal.
 It helps you to live natural or physical values.
 Analog signal output form is like Curve, Line, or Graph, so it’s going to not
be meaningful to all or any .
OR
Characteristics of Analog Signal
1. Amplitude
(i) Amplitude of a signal refers to the height of the signal.
(ii) It is equal to the vertical distance from a given point on the waveform to the
horizontal axis.
(iii) The maximum amplitude of a sine wave is equal to the highest value it
reaches on the vertical axis as shown in figure.

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Data and Signals Cont...
(iv) Amplitude is measured in volts, amperes or watts depending on the type of
signal. A volt is used for voltage, ampere for current and watts for power.
2. Period
(i) Period refers to the amount of time in which a signal completes one cycle.
(ii) It is measured in seconds.
(iii) Other units used to measure period are millisecond (10- 3 sec.) microsecond
(10-6 sec), nanosecond (10-9 sec) and picoseconds (10-12 sec).
3. Frequency
(i) It refers to the number of wave patterns completed in a given period of time.
(ii) To be more precise, frequency refers to number of periods in one second or
number of cycles per second.
(iii) Frequency is measured in Hertz (Hz)
(iv) Other units used to express frequency are kilohertz (10 3 Hz) Megahertz
(106 Hz), gigahertz (109 Hz) and terahertz (1012 Hz).
(v) Frequency and period are the inverse of each other. Period is the inverse of
frequency and frequency is the inverse of period.
4. Phase
(i) Phase describes the position of the waveform relative to time zero.
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Data and Signals Cont...
(ii) Phase describes the amount by which the waveform shifts forward or
backward along the time axis.
(iii) It indicates the status of first cycle.
(iv)Phase is measured in degrees or radians.
(v) A phase shift of 3600 indicates a shift of a complete period, a phase shift of
180° indicates a shift of half period and a phase shift of 90° indicates a shift
of a quarter of a period as shown in fig. below.

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Data and Signals Cont...
Advantages of Analog Signals :
 Here, are pros/benefits of Analog Signals.
 It is Easier in processing.
 Analog Signals are best fitted to audio and video transmission.
 It has a coffee cost and is portable.
 It posses higher density.
 Not necessary in Analog Signals to shop for a replacement graphics board.
 It Uses less bandwidth than digital sounds.
 It Provide more accurate representation of a sound.
 It is the natural sort of a sound.
 It has Less bandwidth.
 Binary digits 0 and 1 represent the optical pulse for storing, processing and
transmitting information.

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Data and Signals Cont...
Disadvantages of Analog Signals :
 Here are cons/drawback of Analog Signals are as follows.
 Analog tends to possess a lower quality signal than digital.
 The cables are sensitive to external influences.
 Analog wire is expensive and not easily portable.
 In this, it has Low availability of models with digital interfaces.
 Recording analog sound on tape is sort of expensive if the tape is broken.
 It offers limitations in editing.
 Tape is becoming hard to seek out.
 It is quite difficult to synchronize analog sound.
 Quality is definitely lost.
 Data can become corrupted in analog signals.
 Most of sound capturing devices such as phones etc which may become confusing
to store a digital signal.
 Digital sounds can cut an analog acoustic wave which suggests that you simply
can’t get an ideal reproduction of a sound.
 It Offers poor multi-user interfaces.

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Modulation
Modulation
 Modulation refers to converting the information signal to a suitable form of
transmission.
 In communication system, the message or the information signal is converted
to the electronic signal, which is transmitted through the communication
channel to the receiver.
 The receiver performs the demodulation process and converts the electronic
signal back into its original form.
Carrier signal
 The carrier signal and the message signal share the same medium of
propagation. It also allows carriers of different frequencies to transmit, which
gives rise to multiplexing, the method to transmit multiple signals effectively
over the same communication channel.
 The high-frequency carrier is also used in various modulation processes
because it travels with high speed and allows the message signal to travel long
distances.
 If the carrier is suppressed during the modulation for improved efficiency, it
can be further added afterward.

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Frequency Modulation (FM)
 In FM transmission, the frequency of the carrier signal is modulated to follow
the changing voltage level (amplitude) of the modulating signal.
 The peak amplitude and phase of the carrier signal remain constant, but as the
amplitude of the information signal changes, the frequency of the carrier
changes correspondingly.
 The frequency modulation index is mostly over 1 and it usually requires a high
bandwidth at a range of 200 kHz.
 FM operates in a very high-frequency range normally between 88 to 108
Megahertz. Stations must be separated by at least 200 kHz to keep their
bandwidths from overlapping.
 FM technology is widely used in the fields of computing,
telecommunications, and signal processing.
 Modification of carrier wave frequency is performed for the purpose of sending
data or information over small distances.
 FM signals can be generated either by using direct frequency modulation,
which is achieved by inputting a message directly into a voltage-controlled
oscillator, or by using indirect frequency modulation, which is achieved by
integrating a message signal to generate a phase-modulated signal, which is
then used to modulate a crystal-controlled oscillator, the result of which is
transmitted through a frequency multiplier to produce an FM signal.
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Frequency Modulation (FM) Cont...

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Amplitude Modulation
 Amplitude modulation or just AM is one of the earliest modulation methods
that is used in transmitting information over the radio.
 Modulation is the process of increasing and enhancing the frequency and
strength of the message signal.
 In AM transmission, the carrier signal is modulated so that its amplitude
varies with the changing amplitudes of the modulating signal.
 The frequency and phase of the carrier remain the same; only the amplitude
changes to follow variations in the information.
 A continuous-wave goes on continuously without any intervals and it is the
baseband message signal, which contains the information. This wave has to
be modulated.
 The process of AM is shown in the below image:

Figure shows the

modulating wave, which is
the message signal.

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Amplitude Modulation Cont...

Fig shows the modulated wave

The modulating signal is the envelope of the carrier.

AM is normally implemented by using a simple multiplier because the amplitude
of the carrier signal needs to be changed according to the amplitude of the
modulating signal.
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Difference B/W Amplitude and Frequency Modulation

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Phase Modulation (PM)
 In PM transmission, the phase of the carrier signal is modulated to follow the
changing voltage level (amplitude) of the modulating signal.
 The peak amplitude and frequency of the carrier signal remain constant, but
as the amplitude of the information signal changes, the phase of the carrier
changes correspondingly.
 It can prove mathematically that PM is the same as FM with one difference.
 In FM, the instantaneous change in the carrier frequency is proportional to
the amplitude of the modulating signal; in PM the instantaneous change in the
carrier frequency is proportional to the derivative of the amplitude of the
modulating signal.
 PM is normally implemented by using a voltage-controlled oscillator along
with a derivative.
 The frequency of the oscillator changes according to the derivative of the
input voltage which is the amplitude of the modulating signal.

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Phase Modulation (PM)
 Phase modulation is defined as the process of varying the phase of the
carrier signal linearly with the instantaneous value of the message signal.
 As the name implies, phase modulation, PM uses variations in phase for
carrying the modulation.
 Phase modulation is also the basis of a form of modulation known as
quadrature amplitude modulation, where both phase and amplitude are
varied to provide additional capabilities.
 It changes message signal in accordance with the carrier signal due to
differences in the immediate phase. This modulation is the combination of
two principal forms such as frequency modulation and angle modulation.
 For digital signals, phase modulation (PM) is widely used in conjunction with
amplitude modulation (AM).
 Phase Modulation and Frequency Modulation are similar, but in Phase
Modulation frequency of the carrier signal is not increased.
 Phase Modulation is used in mobile system. The phase of the carrier wave is
modified in order to send the data or information.

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Phase Modulation (PM) Cont...

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Phase Modulation (PM) Cont...

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Quadrature Amplitude Modulation QAM
 QAM (quadrature amplitude modulation) is a method of combining two
amplitude modulation (AM) signals into a single channel. This approach
helps double its effective bandwidth.
 Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) is a combination of ASK and PSK.
 QAM uses two carriers, one in-phase and the other quadrature, with different
amplitude levels for each carrier.
 QAM is used to achieve high levels of spectrum usage efficiency.
 This is accomplished by utilizing both the amplitude and phase components
to provide a form of modulation.

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Quadrature Amplitude Modulation QAM Cont...
 Quadrature amplitude Modulation is a modulation technique that can be
utilized in Analog modulation concepts and digital modulation concepts.
 Depending upon the input signal form, it has two types: Analog and digital
modulation schemes.
 In QAM, we can modulate two individual signals and transmit them to the
receiver level and by using the two input signals, the channel bandwidth also
increases.
 QAM is capable to transmit two message signals over the same channel.
 This QAM technique is also known as “Quadrature carrier multiplexing”.
Advantages of QAM:
 Supports high data rate.
 Noise immunity is very high therefore, noise interference is very less.
 Low probability of error value.
 It expertly uses channel bandwidth.
Disadvantages of QAM:
 The receiver is more complex compared to receivers of other modulation types.
 QAM requires coherent demodulation with the same phase and frequency.
 As QAM uses the amplitude component of the signal to represent binary data,
linearity needs to be maintained; hence linear amplifier is required which
consumes more power. 30
 Encoding and Modulation

 Digital to Digital signal conversion

 Digital to Analog signal conversion
 Analog to Analog signal conversion
 Analog to Digital signal conversion

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Digital to Digital signal conversion
 We know that, the data can be either digital or analog.
 We also know that, the signals that represent data can also be digital or
analog.
 So, here we will see how we can represent digital data by using digital
signals.
 The conversion involves three techniques: line coding, block coding, and
scrambling.
 Line coding is always needed, block coding and scrambling may or may
not be needed.
Line Coding
 Line coding is the process of converting digital data to digital signals.
 We assume that data, in the form of text, numbers, graphical images, audio,
or video, are stored in computer memory as sequences of bits.
 Line coding converts a sequence of bits to a digital signal.
 At the sender, digital data are encoded into a digital signal; at the receiver, the
digital data are recreated by decoding the digital signal.
Characteristics
 Signal Element Versus Data Element
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Digital to Digital signal conversion Cont...

 In data communications, we send data elements. A data element is the

smallest entity that can represent a piece of information: this is the bit.
 In digital data communications, a signal element carries data elements. A
signal element is the shortest unit (time wise) of a digital signal. In other
words, data elements are what we need to send; signal elements are what we
can send.
 Data elements are being carried; signal elements are the carriers.
 A ratio r which is the number of data elements carried by each signal
element.

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Digital to Digital signal conversion Cont...
Signal element versus data element

several situations with different values of r.

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Digital to Digital signal conversion Cont...
 In part a of the figure, one data element is carried by one signal element (r =
1).
 In part b of the figure, we need two signal elements (two transitions) to carry
each data element (r = 1/2).
 In part c of the figure, a signal element carries two data elements (r = 2).
 Finally, in part d, a group of 4 bits is being carried by a group of three signal
elements (r = 4/3).
 Data Rate Versus Signal Rate
 The data rate defines the number of data elements (bits) sent in Is. The unit
is bits per second (bps).
 The signal rate is the number of signal elements sent in Is. The unit is the
baud.
 The data rate is sometimes called the bit rate; the signal rate is sometimes
called the pulse rate, the modulation rate, or the baud rate.
 We can formulate the relationship between data rate and signal rate as:
S = c x N x 1/ r baud
 where N is the data rate (bps); c is the case factor, which varies for each
case; S is the number of signal elements; and r is the previously defined
factor. 35
Digital to Digital signal conversion Cont...
 Bandwidth
 A digital signal that carries information is non-periodic and the bandwidth
of a non-periodic signal is continuous with an infinite range.
 In other words, the bandwidth is theoretically infinite, but many of the
components have such a small amplitude that they can be ignored.
 The effective bandwidth is finite. Whenever we talk about the bandwidth of
a digital signal, we need to remember that we are talking about this effective
bandwidth.
 Although the actual bandwidth of a digital signal is infinite, the effective
bandwidth is finite.
 DC Components
 When the voltage level in a digital signal is constant for a while, the
spectrum creates very low frequencies.
 These frequencies around zero, called DC (direct-current) components,
present problems for a system that cannot pass low frequencies or a system
that uses electrical coupling (via a transformer).
For example, a telephone line cannot pass frequencies below 200 Hz. Also a
long-distance link may use one or more transformers to isolate different parts
of the line electrically. For these systems, we need a scheme with no DC
component. 36
Digital to Digital signal conversion Cont...
 Self-synchronization
 To correctly interpret the signals received from the sender, the receiver's bit
intervals must correspond exactly to the sender's bit intervals.
 If the receiver clock is faster or slower, the bit intervals are not matched
and the receiver might misinterpret the signals.
 Fig. shows a situation in which the receiver has a shorter bit duration. The
sender sends 10110001, while the receiver receives 110111000011.

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Digital to Digital signal conversion Cont...
 A self-synchronizing digital signal includes timing information in the data
being transmitted.
 This can be achieved if there are transitions in the signal that alert the
receiver to the beginning, middle, or end of the pulse.
 If the receiver's clock is out of synchronization, these points can reset the
clock.
 Built-in Error Detection
 It is desirable to have a built-in error-detecting capability in the generated
code to detect some of or all the errors that occurred during transmission.
 Complexity
 A complex scheme is more costly to implement than a simple one.
 For example, a scheme that uses four signal levels is more difficult to
interpret than one that uses only two levels.
 Line Coding Schemes
 The line coding schemes are divided into five broad categories:

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Digital to Digital signal conversion Cont...
Types:

1) Unipolar Scheme:
 In a unipolar scheme, all the signal levels are on one side of the time axis,
either above or below.
A) NRZ (Non-Return-to-Zero) : Traditionally, a unipolar scheme was
designed as a non-return-to-zero (NRZ) scheme in which the positive
voltage defines bit I and the zero voltage defines bit O. It is called NRZ
because the signal does not return to zero at the middle of the bit.

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Digital to Digital signal conversion Cont...

 Compared with its polar counterpart (see the next section), this scheme is
very costly.
 In this, the normalized power (power needed to send 1 bit per unit line
resistance) is double that for polar NRZ. For this reason, this scheme is
normally not used in data communications today.
2) Polar Schemes
 In polar schemes, the voltages are on the both sides of the time axis. For
example, the voltage level for 0 can be positive and the voltage level for I can
be negative.
B) Non-Return-to-Zero (NRZ): In polar NRZ encoding, we use two levels of
voltage amplitude. We can have two versions of polar NRZ: NRZ-L and
NRZ-I,

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Digital to Digital signal conversion Cont...
 The figure also shows the value of r, the average baud rate, and the
bandwidth.

 In the first variation, NRZ-L (NRZ-Level), the level of the voltage

determines the value of the bit.
 In the second variation, NRZ-I (NRZ-Invert), the change or lack of change
in the level of the voltage determines the value of the bit.
 If there is no change, the bit is 0; if there is a change, the bit is 1.

Note: In NRZ-L the level of the voltage determines the value of the bit. In NRZ-I
the inversion or the lack of inversion determines the value of the bit. 41
Digital to Digital signal conversion Cont...
3) Bipolar Schemes
 In bipolar encoding (sometimes called multilevel binary), there are three
voltage levels: positive, negative, and zero.
 The voltage level for one data element is at zero, while the voltage level for
the other element alternates between positive and negative.
C) AMI and Pseudoternary
 Figure shows two variations of bipolar encoding: AMI and pseudoternary.

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Digital to Digital signal conversion Cont...
 A common bipolar encoding scheme is called bipolar alternate mark
inversion (AMI).
 In the term alternate mark inversion, the word mark comes from telegraphy
and means 1.
 So AMI means alternate I inversion. A neutral zero voltage represents binary
O.
 Binary Is are represented by alternating positive and negative voltages.
 A variation of AMI encoding is called pseudoternary in which the 1 bit is
encoded as a zero voltage and the 0 bit is encoded as alternating positive and
negative voltages.
 The bipolar scheme was developed as an alternative to NRZ. The bipolar
scheme has the same signal rate as NRZ, but there is no DC component.
 The NRZ scheme has most of its energy concentrated near zero frequency,
which makes it unsuitable for transmission over channels with poor
performance around this frequency.
 The concentration of the energy in bipolar encoding is around frequency N12.

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Digital to Digital signal conversion Cont...
4) Multilevel Schemes
 The desire to increase the data speed or decrease the required bandwidth
has resulted in the creation of many schemes.
 The goal is to increase the number of bits per baud by encoding a pattern of
m data elements into a pattern of n signal elements.
 We only have two types of data elements (Os and Is), which means that a
group of m data elements can produce a combination of 2^m data patterns.
 We can have different types of signal elements by allowing different signal
levels.
 If we have L different levels, then we can produce Ln combinations of signal
patterns.
- If 2^m =Ln, then each data pattern is encoded into one signal pattern.
- If 2^m < L^n, data patterns occupy only a subset of signal patterns. The subset
can be carefully designed to prevent baseline wandering, to provide
synchronization, and to detect errors that occurred during data transmission.
- Data encoding is not possible if 2^m > L^n because some of the data patterns
cannot be encoded.

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Digital to Digital signal conversion Cont...
 The code designers have classified these types of coding as mBnL, where m is
the length of the binary pattern, B means binary data, n is the length of the
signal pattern, and L is the number of levels in the signaling. A letter is often
used in place of L : B (binary) for L =2, T (ternary) for L =3, and Q
(quaternary) for L =4. Note that the first two letters define the data pattern, and
the second two define the signal pattern.
5) Multiline Transmission: MLT-3
 NRZ-I and differential Manchester are classified as differential encoding but
use two transition rules to encode binary data (no inversion, inversion).
 If we have a signal with more than two levels, we can design a differential
encoding scheme with more than two transition rules. MLT-3 is one of them.
 The multiline transmission, three level (MLT-3) scheme uses three levels (+v, 0,
and - V) and three transition rules to move between the levels.
 The three voltage levels (-V, 0, and +V) are shown by three states (ovals). The
transition from one state (level) to another is shown by the connecting lines.
These levels are represented in fig.
1. If the next bit is 0, there is no transition.
2. If the next bit is 1 and the current level is not 0, the next level is 0.
3. If the next bit is 1 and the current level is 0, the next level is the opposite of the
last nonzero level. 45
Digital to Digital signal conversion Cont...

Block Coding
 We need redundancy to ensure synchronization and to provide some kind
of inherent error detecting.
 Block coding can give us this redundancy and improve the performance of
line coding.
 In general, block coding changes a block of m bits into a block of n bits,
where n is larger than m. Block coding is referred to as an (mB/nB) encoding
technique. 46
Digital to Digital signal conversion Cont...
Note: Block coding is normally referred to as mBlnB coding; it replaces each m~bit
group with an n~bit group.

 Block coding normally involves three steps: division, substitution, and

combination.
- In the division step, a sequence of bits is divided into groups of m bits.
For example, in 4B/5B encoding, the original bit sequence is divided into 4-bit
groups. 47
Digital to Digital signal conversion Cont...
- The heart of block coding is the substitution step. In this step, we substitute an
m-bit group for an n-bit group.
For example, in 4B/5B encoding we substitute a 4-bit code for a 5-bit group.
- Finally, the n-bit groups are combined together to form a stream. The new
stream has more bits than the original bits.

Scrambling
 If we are looking for a technique that does not increase the number of bits
and does provide synchronization then that time a solution that substitutes
long zero-level pulses with a combination of other levels to provide
synchronization is required. One solution is called scrambling.

48
Digital to Digital signal conversion Cont...
 Note that scrambling, as opposed to block coding, is done at the same time as
encoding.
 The system needs to insert the required pulses based on the defined
scrambling rules. Two common scrambling techniques are B8ZS and HDB3.

49
Digital-to-Analog Conversion
 Digital-to-analog conversion is the process of changing one of the
characteristics of an analog signal based on the information in digital data.
 Figure below shows the relationship between the digital information, the
digital-to-analog modulating process, and the resultant analog signal.

the relationship between the

digital information, the
digital-to-analog
modulating process,
and the resultant analog
signal.

 As discussed, a sine wave is defined by three characteristics: amplitude,

frequency, and phase.
 When we vary anyone of these characteristics, we create a different version
of that wave. So, by changing one characteristic of a simple electric signal,
we can use it to represent digital data.
 Any of the three characteristics can be altered in this way, gives at least three
mechanisms for modulating digital data into an analog signal: amplitude
shift keying (ASK), frequency shift keying (FSK), and phase shift keying
(PSK).
50
Digital-to-Analog Conversion Cont...
 In addition, there is a fourth (and better) mechanism that combines changing
both the amplitude and phase, called quadrature amplitude modulation
(QAM).
 QAM is the most efficient of these options and is the mechanism commonly
used today.
Types of digital-to-analog conversion

Aspects of Digital-to-Analog Conversion

 Before moving to the specific methods of digital-to-analog modulation, two
basic issues must be reviewed: bit and baud rates and the carrier signal.

51
Digital-to-Analog Conversion Cont...
1. Amplitude Shift keying – Amplitude Shift Keying is a technique in which
carrier signal is analog and data to be modulated is digital. The amplitude of
analog carrier signal is modified to reflect binary data.
 The binary signal when modulated gives a zero value when the binary data
represents 0 while gives the carrier output when data is 1. The frequency and
phase of the carrier signal remain constant.

Advantages of amplitude shift Keying –

 It can be used to transmit digital data over optical fiber.
 The receiver and transmitter have a simple design which also makes it
comparatively inexpensive.
 It uses lesser bandwidth as compared to FSK thus it offers high bandwidth
efficiency.
52
Digital-to-Analog Conversion Cont...
Disadvantages of amplitude shift Keying –
 It is susceptible to noise interference and entire transmissions could be lost
due to this.
 It has lower power efficiency.
2. Frequency Shift keying – In this modulation the frequency of analog carrier
signal is modified to reflect binary data.
 The output of a frequency shift keying modulated wave is high in frequency
for a binary high input and is low in frequency for a binary low input. The
amplitude and phase of the carrier signal remain constant.

53
Digital-to-Analog Conversion Cont...
Advantages of frequency shift Keying –
 Frequency shift keying modulated signal can help avoid the noise problems
beset by ASK.
 It has lower chances of an error.
 It provides high signal to noise ratio.
 The transmitter and receiver implementations are simple for low data rate
application.
Disadvantages of frequency shift Keying –
 It uses larger bandwidth as compared to ASK thus it offers less bandwidth
efficiency.
 It has lower power efficiency.
3. Phase Shift keying – In this modulation the phase of the analog carrier signal
is modified to reflect binary data. The amplitude and frequency of the carrier
signal remains constant.

54
Digital-to-Analog Conversion Cont...
 Phase Shift keying is further categorized as follows:
1. Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK): BPSK also known as phase reversal keying or
2PSK is the simplest form of phase shift keying. The Phase of the carrier wave is
changed according to the two binary inputs. In Binary Phase shift keying, difference
of 180 phase shift is used between binary 1 and binary 0.This is regarded as the most
robust digital modulation technique and is used for long distance wireless
communication.
2. Quadrature phase shift keying: This technique is used to increase the bit rate i.e
we can code two bits onto one single element. It uses four phases to encode two bits
per symbol. QPSK uses phase shifts of multiples of 90 degrees. It has double data
rate carrying capacity compare to BPSK as two bits are mapped on each
constellation points.
Advantages of phase shift Keying –
 It is a more power efficient modulation technique as compared to ASK and FSK.
 It has lower chances of an error.
 It allows data to be carried along a communication signal much more efficiently as
compared to FSK.
 Disadvantages of phase shift Keying –
 It offers low bandwidth efficiency.
 The detection and recovery algorithms of binary data is very complex.
 It is a non coherent reference signal. 55
Analog-to-Analog Conversion
 Analog-to-analog conversion, or analog modulation, is the representation of
analog information by an analog signal.
Why there is a need to modulate an analog signal; it is already analog?
 Modulation is needed if the medium is bandpass in nature or if only a
bandpass channel is available to us.
An example is radio. The government assigns a narrow bandwidth to each
radio station. The analog signal produced by each station is a low-pass
signal, all in the same range. To be able to listen to different stations, the low-
pass signals need to be shifted, each to a different range.
 Analog-to-analog conversion can be accomplished in three ways: amplitude
modulation (AM), frequency modulation (FM), and phase modulation (PM). FM
and PM are usually categorized together

Bandpass filters are used primarily in wireless

Note: bandpass transmitters and receivers. The main function
of such a filter in a transmitter is to limit the
A baseband bandwidth is equal to bandwidth of the output signal to the
the highest frequency of a signal or minimum necessary to convey data at the
system desired speed and in the desired form.

56
Analog-to-Analog Conversion Cont...
Types of analog-to-analog modulation

57
Analog-to-Analog Conversion Cont...
1. AMPLITUDE MODULATION:
 The modulation in which the amplitude of the carrier wave is varied
according to the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal keeping
phase and frequency as constant. The figure below shows the concept of
amplitude modulation:

 AM is normally implemented by using a simple multiplier because the

amplitude of the carrier signal needs to be changed according to the
amplitude of the modulating signal.
AM bandwidth: The modulation creates a bandwidth that is twice the
bandwidth of the modulating signal and covers a range centered on the carrier
frequency. Bandwidth= 2fm
58
Analog-to-Analog Conversion Cont...
2. FREQUENCY MODULATION –
 The modulation in which the frequency of the carrier wave is varied
according to the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal keeping
phase and amplitude as constant. The figure below shows the concept of
frequency modulation:

 FM is normally implemented by using a voltage-controlled oscillator as with

FSK. The frequency of the oscillator changes according to the input voltage
which is the amplitude of the modulating signal.
FM bandwidth:
A. The bandwidth of a frequency modulated signal varies with both deviation
and modulating frequency. If modulating frequency (Mf) 0.5, wide band Fm
signal.
59
Analog-to-Analog Conversion Cont...
B. For a narrow band Fm signal, bandwidth required is twice the maximum
frequency of the modulation, however for a wide band Fm signal the required
bandwidth can be very much larger, with detectable sidebands spreading out
over large amounts of the frequency spectrum.
3. PHASE MODULATION:
 The modulation in which the phase of the carrier wave is varied according to
the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal keeping amplitude and
frequency as constant. The figure below shows the concept of frequency
modulation:

60
Analog-to-Analog Conversion Cont...
 Phase modulation is practically similar to Frequency Modulation, but in
Phase modulation frequency of the carrier signal is not increased.
 It is normally implemented by using a voltage-controlled oscillator along
with a derivative.
 The frequency of the oscillator changes according to the derivative of the
input voltage which is the amplitude of the modulating signal.
PM bandwidth:
A. For small amplitude signals, PM is similar to amplitude modulation (AM) and
exhibits its unfortunate doubling of baseband bandwidth and poor efficiency.
B. For a single large sinusoidal signal, PM is similar to FM, and its bandwidth is
approximately, 2 (h+1) Fm where h= modulation index.

Thus, Modulation allows us to send a signal over a bandpass frequency

range. If every signal gets its own frequency range, then we can transmit
multiple signals simultaneously over a single channel, all using different
frequency ranges.

61
Analog-to-Digital Conversion
 To change an analog signal to digital data two techniques, are there:
(i) pulse code modulation and
(ii) delta modulation.
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
 The most common technique to change an analog signal to digital data
(digitization) is called pulse code modulation (PCM).
 A PCM encoder has three processes:
1. The analog signal is sampled.
2. The sampled signal is quantized.
3. The quantized values are encoded as streams of bits.

62
Analog-to-Digital Conversion
Sampling
 The first step in PCM is sampling. The analog signal is sampled every Ts s,
where Ts is the sample interval or period.
 The inverse of the sampling interval is called the sampling rate or sampling
frequency and denoted by is, where is = IITs
 There are three sampling methods:
(a)ideal (b) natural, and (c) flat-top

63
Analog-to-Digital Conversion
Ideal sampling
 In ideal sampling, pulses from the analog signal are sampled. This is an ideal
sampling method and cannot be easily implemented.
Natural sampling
 A high-speed switch is turned on for only the small period of time when the
sampling occurs.
 The result is a sequence of samples that retains the shape of the analog signal.
 The most common sampling method, called sample and hold, however,
creates flat-top samples by using a circuit.

Note: According to the Nyquist theorem, the sampling rate must be at least 2
times the highest frequency contained in the signal.

64
Analog-to-Digital Conversion
For example: First, we can sample a signal only if the signal is band-limited. In
other words, a signal with an infinite bandwidth cannot be sampled. Second,
the sampling rate must be at least 2 times the highest frequency, not the
bandwidth. If the analog signal is low-pass, the bandwidth and the highest
frequency are the same value. If the analog signal is bandpass, the bandwidth
value is lower than the value of the maximum frequency.

Nyquist sampling rate for low-pass and bandpass signals

65
Analog-to-Digital Conversion
Quantization
 The result of sampling is a series of pulses with amplitude values between
the maximum and minimum amplitudes of the signal.
 The set of amplitudes can be infinite with non-integral values between the
two limits.
 These values cannot be used in the encoding process. The following are the
steps in quantization:
1. We assume that the original analog signal has instantaneous amplitudes
between Vmin and Vmax.
2. We divide the range into L zones, each of height (delta).

3. We assign quantized values of 0 to L - I to the midpoint of each zone.

4. We approximate the value of the sample amplitude to the quantized values.

66
Analog-to-Digital Conversion
Encoding
 The last step in PCM is encoding. After each sample is quantized and the
number of bits per sample is decided, each sample can be changed to an llb-
bit code word.

67
Analog-to-Digital Conversion
 From the fig. a quantization code of 2 is encoded as 010; 5 is encoded as
101; and so on.
 Note that the number of bits for each sample is determined from the number
of quantization levels. If the number of quantization levels is L, the number of
bits is llb =log2 L. In our example L is 8 and llb is therefore 3. The bit rate
can be found from the formula

Example : 1
We want to digitize the human voice. What is the bit rate, assuming 8 bits per
sample?
Solution
The human voice normally contains frequencies from 0 to 4000 Hz. So the
sampling rate and bit rate are calculated as follows:
Sampling rate :::: 4000 x 2 :::: 8000 samples/s
Bit rate == 8000 x 8 :::: 64,000 bps == 64 kbps

68
Analog-to-Digital Conversion
Delta Modulation (DM)
 PCM is a very complex technique. Other techniques have been developed
to reduce the complexity of PCM.
 The simplest is delta modulation. PCM finds the value of the signal
amplitude for each sample; DM finds the change from the previous sample.

Note that there are no code words here; bits are sent one after another.

69
Analog-to-Digital Conversion
Modulator
 The modulator is used at the sender site to create a stream of bits from an
analog signal.
 The process records the small positive or negative changes, called delta O.
If the delta is positive, the process records a I; if it is negative, the process
records a O.
 However, the process needs a base against which the analog signal is
compared.
 The modulator builds a second signal that resembles a staircase.
 Finding the change is then reduced to comparing the input signal with the
gradually made staircase signal.

70
Analog-to-Digital Conversion
 The modulator, at each sampling interval, compares the value of the analog
signal with the last value of the staircase signal.
 If the amplitude of the analog signal is larger, the next bit in the digital data is
1; otherwise, it is O.
Demodulator
 The demodulator takes the digital data and, using the staircase maker and
the delay unit, creates the analog signal.
 The created analog signal, however, needs to pass through a low-pass filter
for smoothing.

71
Key Points Cont...
 Analog-to-analog conversion is the representation of analog information by
an analog signal. Conversion is needed if the medium is bandpass in nature or
if only a bandpass bandwidth is available to us.
 Analog-to-analog conversion can be accomplished in three ways: amplitude
modulation (AM), frequency modulation (FM), and phase modulation (PM).
 In AM transmission, the carrier signal is modulated so that its amplitude
varies with the changing amplitudes of the modulating signal. The frequency
and phase of the carrier remain the same; only the amplitude changes to
follow variations in the information.
 In PM transmission, the frequency of the carrier signal is modulated to follow
the changing voltage level (amplitude) of the modulating signal. The peak
amplitude and phase of the carrier signal remain constant, but as the
amplitude of the information signal changes, the frequency of the carrier
changes correspondingly.
 In PM transmission, the phase of the carrier signal is modulated to follow the
changing voltage level (amplitude) of the modulating signal. The peak
amplitude and frequency of the carrier signal remain constant, but as the
amplitude of the information signal changes, the phase of the carrier changes
correspondingly.
72
Key Points
 Digital-to-analog conversion is the process of changing one of the
characteristics of an analog signal based on the information in the digital
data.
 Digital-to-analog conversion can be accomplished in several ways: amplitude
shift keying (ASK), frequency shift keying (FSK), and phase shift keying
(PSK). Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) combines ASK and PSK.
 In amplitude shift keying, the amplitude of the carrier signal is varied to
create signal elements. Both frequency and phase remain constant while the
amplitude changes.
 In frequency shift keying, the frequency of the carrier signal is varied to
represent data. The frequency of the modulated signal is constant for the
duration of one signal element, but changes for the next signal element if the
data element changes. Both peak amplitude and phase remain constant for all
signal elements.
 In phase shift keying, the phase of the carrier is varied to represent two or
more different signal elements. Both peak amplitude and frequency remain
constant as the phase changes.
 Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) is a combination of ASK and PSK.
QAM uses two carriers, one in-phase and the other quadrature, with different
amplitude levels for each carrier. 73
Thank you

74