Compressors

The compressor is considered the heart of the refrigeration system. The term that
best describes a compressor is a vapor pump. The compressor actually increases
the pressure from the suction pressure level to the discharge pressure level

Classification of Compressor

 Reciprocating compressor

 Rotary Compressors

 The Scroll Compressor

 Centrifugal Compressors

 Screw Compressors
 Reciprocating Compressor

 The reciprocating compressor sucks the low pressure and low

temperature refrigerant from evaporator during its suction stroke and
delivers it at high pressure and high temperature to the condenser.

 The reciprocating compressors are built in sizes ranging from a

fraction of horse power to several hundred horse power.

 These are used for refrigerating plant ranging in sizes from 0.25 ton to
1000 tons capacity per unit.

 This is preferable for high compression ratio and low specific volume
refrigerants.
Working of Reciprocating Compressor:

 The volume Vc of gas in the clearance

space of a compressor is at discharge
pressure P2 and as the piston moves out
on its suction stroke.
 This entrapped gas in the clearance re-
expands, finally reaching volume vc',
when the cylinder pressure has dropped
to the system suction pressure PI

Fig 1 Reciprocating Compressor

 Types Of Reciprocating
Compressor
There are two different type of compressors in general use.

 Single acting vertical compressors

 Double acting horizontal compressors.

Single Acting Vertical Compressors:

There is one delivery of high pressure
refrigerant for every revolution for single
acting compressor. The single acting
compressors are further classified according to
the conditions considered below:
 Number of cylinders
 Arrangement of cylinders
 Speed of cylinder
 Staging of the cylinder.
Fig 2 Single Acting Vertical Compressor
Double Acting Horizontal
Compressors:
 There is two deliveries from both sides of the pistons for each revolution for
double acting compressor

Fig 3 Double Acting Horizontal Compressors

 Volumetric Efficiency of Reciprocating
Compressor
 In a reciprocating compressor, when the piston reaches

the end of its compression stroke, a portion of gas

always remains in and is not discharged from the

cylinder.

 The space in the cylinder occupied by the gas at the end

of discharge stroke is known as the clearance volume

and it is usually expressed as the percentage of the

stroke displacement volume.

 Some clearance is always necessary and desirable to

provide cushioning and to prevent piston slap on the

Fig 4 Pressure volume
cylinder head. Clearance is objectionable becuase the diagram
of a compressor
capacity of two similar compressors each having the

same piston displacement will be smaller for the

machine having greater clearance.

P1 = Suction pressure of compressor,

P2 = Delivery pressure of compressor

Vs = Stroke volume of the compressor,

va = Actual volume of gas taken in,

Vc = Clearance volume,

vc' = Volume of gas after re-expansion,

The clearance volume Vc is always presented in terms of stroke volume, so

that the percentage clearance (C) is given by
VC
C 100 - - - - (1)
VS
The volumetric efficiency of the compressor is defined as the ratio of
actual volume taken in per stroke divided by the stroke volume.
  v'c 
vs  vc   1
v v  (vs  v c )
'
 vc 
v  C  s  - - - - (2)
vS vs vs

Applying the law of expansion to the points (3) and (4)

p 2 .vcn  p1 (v c' ) n
1n
 P2 
(v )  v c  
'
c
 P1 
1n
v  P2 
'
 
c

vc  P1 
Substituting this value in equation (13.2)
 P 1 n 
vs  v c  2   1
 P1   v  P 1 n  - - - - (2)
v   1 c  2   1
vs vs  P1  
Substituting the value of vc from equation (1), we get
vs


C  P2 
1n

v  1     1 - - - - (3)
100  P1  

The superheating of the gas to the higher temperature as it enters the cylinder, and
friction loss to gas through ports and valves, there by reducing the pressure, also
contribute for lowering volumetric efficiency. If there two factors are taken into
account then the net volumetric efficiency is given by

PC T
vG  v  v . c - - - - (4)
Pe Te
Where ŋva = actual volumetric efficiency

 Pc = Pressure of vapour in the cylinder at the start of compressor.

 Pe = Pressure of the vapour in the evaporator suction pipe at the entry of

the compressor.
Pc < Pe

 Tc = Temperature of vapour in the cylinder at the start of compression

 Te = Temperature of the vapour in the evaporator suction pipe at the

entry of the compressor.
Te> Tc

 Equation (3) shows that as the pressure ratio increases, the volumetric
efficiency will go on decreasing when clearance is constant.
 The volumetric efficiency also decreases with an increase in elements as well
as index of compression for same pressure ratio.
 But the actual volumetric efficiency is lower than the theoretical due to
pressure losses in valves and superheating of gas due to cylinder wall friction.
Problem
A reciprocating compressor of a refrigeration machine works between 2 bar and 12
bar. The clearance is 6 of the stroke. Adiabatic compression and expansion follow the
law pv1.31 = constant. Find the power required to run the compressor if volume of gas
sucked per minute is 1 m3. Also find the volumetric efficiency of the compressor.
Solution : The volumetric efficiency of the compressor is given by
 1

v  p  
v  a  1  K  2   1
vs  p1  
 
 1

  12 1.31 
=1-0.06    1
 2  
 
=1-0.246=0.754=75.4 0 0
The work required to run the compressor in given by
 1
 
n  p 
Wv  p1V1  2   1 where V1  1 m3 / min.
n 1  p1  
 
 0.31

1.31 1  12  1.31
=  2 105     1 N  m / sec or J/s or W
1.31-1 60  2  
 
1.31 2 10 1  0.237 
5
=    6   1 kW
0.31 103 60 
1.31 200
=  1.53  1  4.75kW .
0.31 60
 Multistage
compression
 When the compression ratio required is considerably high as in case of low
temperature refrigeration systems, the single stage compression is highly
uneconomical due to the volumetric efficiency is very low, the frictional losses
are high, leakage problem due to high pressure potential increases and high
running cost
 For high compression ratio, multistage compression with intermediate cooling is
generally adopted for economical working of the compressor

Fig 5 Multistage compression with perfect inter-cooling

 The kW required for multistage compression with intermediate cooling can be
calculated as follows:
 The hatched area 'A' gives the saving in work due to intercooling as shown in Fig.
 The power required for the compressor C2 is given by

n 1  p 2  
(n 1) n

 KW C1  mRT1    1
n  11000  p1  

 Similarly the kW required for the compressor C2 is given by

n 1  p 3  
(n 1) n

 KW C2  mRT3    1
n  11000  p 2  
 From above two equations 

kW(Total)   kW C1   kW C2

1   p3  
(n 1) n (n 1) n
n  p3 
mR. . T1    T3    T1  T3 
n  1 1000   p 2  p
 2 

 It is necessary to select the intermediate pressure P2 in such a way that the
work input must be minimum. For selecting the pressure P 2 for minimum
work, following three cases are considered.

1.Temperature at the End of Cooling in Intercooler is Fixed

2.Cooling Ratio is Fixed
3.Intermediate Temperature after Cooling belongs to the Saturation
Temperature at that Pressure
Factors Affecting the Performance of Reciprocating Compressor

 Suction Temperature

 Condensing Temperature

Suction Temperature:

 The compressor capacity decreases with the decrease in suction

(evaporator) temperature.

Condensing Temperature:
 In general, the compressor refrigerating capacity decreases with condenser
condenser temperature.

 The compressor B.P. as well as the B.P/tonn also increases with an

increase in condenser pressure when the suction temperature is constant.
Advantages of reciprocating compressor:

 Simple design and easy to install

 Lower initial cost

 Large range of horsepower (HP)

Disadvantages of reciprocating compressor:

 Higher maintenance cost

 Many moving parts

 Potential for vibration problems

 Rotary Compressors

 A positive-displacement machine in
which compression of the fluid is
effected directly by a rotor and
without the usual piston, connecting
rod, and crank mechanism of the
reciprocating compressor.

There Are Mainly Two

Types
Of Rotary Compressors:
 Rotary compressors with one
stationary sealing blade and eccentric
rotor.

 Rotary compressors with sealing blade

which rotate with eccentric shaft.

Fig 6 Rotary Compressors

Working of Rotary Compressors:

spring
 The blades move outward against the
cylinder due to centrifugal action during
the rotation of the rotor. discharge suction

 These blades follows the contour of the

cylinder wall as the rotor is eccentric
with the cylinder.

 The check valve is provided to prevent

the leakage of high pressure vapour
from high pressure region to low
pressure region.

 The blades are free to move in and out

of the slots provided on the rotor.
Fig 7
The Advantages of rotary compressors over reciprocating
compressors are listed below

 Rotary compressors are more silent in operation and free from vibrations.

 These compressors are satisfactorily used with refrigerants having high specific
volume at low suction pressure.

 It is preferred for low temperature applications.

 Scroll
compressor
 Scroll compressors are orbital motion,
positive displacement type compressors,
in which suction and compression is
obtained by using two mating, spiral
shaped, scroll members, one fixed and
the other orbiting.

 scroll compressor also called spiral

compressor, scroll pump and scroll
vacuum pump. Currently, the scroll
compressors are used in small capacity
(3 to 50 kW) refrigeration, air
conditioning and heat pump applications.
They are normally of hermetic type.
Fig 8 Scroll compressor
Working of scroll compressor:

Suction process
(first orbit)

Compression process
(second orbit)

Discharge process
(third orbit)

Fig 8.1
Working of scroll
compressor:
 Fig 8.1 shows the working principle of scroll compressors. The
compression process involves three orbits of the orbiting scroll. In the first
orbit, the scrolls ingest and trap two pockets of suction gas. During the
second orbit, the two pockets of gas are compressed to an intermediate
pressure. In the final orbit, the two pockets reach discharge pressure and
are simultaneously opened to the discharge port.
 This simultaneous process of suction, intermediate compression, and
discharge leads to the smooth continuous compression process of the
scroll compressor.
 Here, the gas was compressed slowly and smoothly and the driving torque
is almost constant.
Advantages of scroll compressor:

 Large suction and discharge ports reduce pressure losses during suction
and discharge
 Physical separation of suction and compression reduce heat transfer to
suction gas, leading to high volumetric efficiency
 High compression efficiency, low noise and vibration compared to
reciprocating compressors
 Compact with minimum number of moving parts

Disadvantages of scroll compressor:

 Compressor cannot be disassembled in the period of maintenance

 Incremental capacity control on systems with multiple compressors

 Centrifugal compressor
The construction and operation of
centrifugal compressor
 “Centrifugal compressor” as understood in
refrigeration industry usually refers to a
“turbo compressor”.
 A schematic diagram of the centrifugal
compressor is shown in Fig. 9
 Vapor enters axially at the center wheel 1 and
flows through the passage 3 in the impeller 2.
 The pressure and absolute velocity of the
vapor rises when it passes the impeller
because of the centrifugal force. Fig. 9 Schematic diagram of
the centrifugal compressor
 In the stationary diffuser 4 the flow of vapor
1-eye, inlet cavity. 2–
is decelerated to further raise the vapor impeller (wheel). 3-blades
(or vanes).
pressure.
4-diffuser. 5-volute (scroll).
 The compressed vapor is collected in the scroll 6- outlet cavity.

or volute 5 and discharged to the delivery

Working of Centrifugal Compressor :

G2
G1
Working of Centrifugal Compressor:

 The refrigerant vapour is drawn into the compressor and it is discharged

with a considerable high velocity at the outside edge of the impeller.

 This high velocity head is further converted into pressure head by passing
through the diffuser.

 The rise in pressure per stage of centrifugal compressor is considerably

smaller compared with single stage reciprocating compressor.
Advantages of centrifugal compressor

 High efficiency approaching two stages of reciprocating compressor

 Can reach pressure up to 85 bar

 Volumetric efficiency is more during discharge

Disadvantages of centrifugal compressor

 High initial cost

 Complicated monitoring and control Systems

 Specialized maintenance considerations

 Screw compressor

Screw compressors are also belong to the positive displacement compressor

family.
In screw compressors, the compression is accomplished by the enmeshing of
two mating helically grooved rotors suitably housed in a cylinder equipped
with appropriated inlet and discharge ports
The rotors are the main components of the screw compressor.
A cross view of the two principle rotating elements of the screw compressor is
shown in Fig 10.

Fig 10 Screw Compressor

 The male rotor is normally the driving rotor and consists of a series of lobes
(usually four) along the length of the rotor that mesh with similarly formed
corresponding helical flutes (usually six) on the female rotor.
 As the rotors turn, vapor is drawn through the inlet opening to fill the space
between the male lobe and the female flute
 As the rotors continue to rotate, the vapor is moved past the suction port and
sealed in the interlobe space

Fig 11
 The vapor so trapped in the interlobe space is moved both axially and radially
and is compressed by direct volume reduction as the enmeshing of the lobes
progressively reduced the space occupied by the vapor
 Compression of the vapor continues until the interlobe space communicates
with the discharge ports in the cylinder and the compressed vapor leaves the
cylinder through these ports.
 The length and diameter of the rotors determine the capacity and the
discharge pressure.
 The longer the rotors, the higher the pressure
 The larger the diameter of the rotors, the greater the capacity
 Lubrication and sealing between the rotors is obtained by injecting lubricating
oil between the rotors. The oil also helps in cooling the compressor, as a result
very high pressure ratios (upto 20:1) are possible without overheating the
compressor.

 Since the built-in volume ratio is fixed by the geometry, a particular

compressor is designed for a particular built-in pressure ratio. However,
different built-in ratios can be obtained by changing the position of the
discharge port. The built-in pressure ratio, rp given by:
 Pd 
rp     Vbk
 PS 

 Where Pd and Ps are the discharge and suction pressures, Vb is the built-in
volume ratio and k is the index of compression
Advantages of the screw compressor

 Screw compressors are reliable and compact.

 Compressor rotors can be manufactured with very small clearances at an
economic cost.
 In many applications, the screw compressor offers significant advantages over
reciprocating compressors.

1. Its fewer moving parts mean less maintenance. There is no need to

service the items such as compressor valves, packing and piston rings,
and the associated downtime for replacement.

2. The absence of reciprocating inertial forces allows the screw compressor

to run at high speeds. So, it could be constructed more compact.
 3. The continuous flow of cooling lubricant allows much higher single-stage
compression ratios.
4. The compactness tends to reduce package costs.
5. Low vibration due to reducing or eliminating pulsations by screw
technology
6. Higher speeds and compression ratios help to maximize available
production horsepower.
 A major problem with screw compressors is that the pressure difference
between entry and exit creates very large radial and axial forces on the rotors
whose magnitude and direction is independent of the direction of rotation
 Condenser

 The condenser removes the heat from refrigerant carried from evaporator
and added by compressor and converts the vapour refrigerant into liquid
refrigerant.
 The condenser is operated at higher pressures and temperatures than the
evaporator and is often located outside.
 It is an heat exchanger in which heat transfer takes place from high
temperature vapour to low temperature air or water which is used as
cooling medium.

Two considerations are necessary in design of the condenser as given below:

 Effective temperature differential
 High heat transfer coefficient.
 Types
of condenser

Water Cooled
Air Cooled Condenser
Condenser

Natural
Forced convection
convection
air -cooled Water waste Re circulated
air-cooled
condenser system system
condenser
 Air cooled
condenser
 Heat exchange takes place through medium of air in the condenser.

 The air was not considered as an economical coolant before the

introduction of Freon Refrigerants.

 The use of Freon as refrigerants allowed to use air as coolant for

condensing temperatures above 30°C under normal condensing
pressures.

 Natural convection-air cooled condenser-Heat exchange takes place

through the medium of surrounding air

 Forced convection-air cooled condenser-Heat exchange takes place

through the medium of forced air by fan
Working of Natural Convection Air-Cooled Condenser

 In natural convection type, the

condensing tubes are arranged on a
large floor with an inclination of 7°C
with horizontal.
 These condenser, the noise of the fan
can be avoided and running power cost
of the blower can be eliminated.
 Forced type air-condensers for big unit
require 0.1 to 0.2 kW to run the
blower per ton of refrigerating capacity
of the plant.
 These types of condensers are used for Fig 12
refrigeration system from 0.5 ton to
500 tons capacity of the plant.
Working of Forced Convection Air-cooled Condenser

 In forced convection air-cooled

condenser the face velocity across the
coil is more uniform and the coil is
more effectively used.
 But hot discharged air from the coil
flows over the fan and motor so they
should be designed to withstand
higher air temp.
 In blow through designing the fan &
motor has ambient air flowing over
them, but the face velocity across the
coil is less uniform than the draw
through design. Fig 13
Advantages of Air-Cooled Condensers over Water-Cooled Condensers

 Simplicity of construction.

 No handling problems.

 Piping arrangement for carrying the air is not required.

 There is no problem of disposal of used air.

 Fouling effects are very less compared with water.

 Installation and maintenance costs are considerably less.

 High flexibility.
Disadvantages of Air-Cooled Condensers over Water-Cooled Condensers:

 Poor heat carrying capacity.

 It requires very large quantity of air as 300 m3 per ton of refrigeration

per hour.

 These condensers are seldom used for refrigeration units over 5 tons
capacity because power required to drive the fan becomes excessive
and fans noise becomes objectionable.

 The major disadvantage associated with this type of condenser is that

the condenser gives lowest capacity when the outside air temperature is
highest and this is usually the time when greatest capacity is required.

 Air-cooled condenser operates at a greater condensing temp therefore,

the refrigeration system delivers 15 to 20% lower capacity.
 Water-Cooled Condensers

 Heat exchange takes place through the medium of water in the

condenser.
 Water-cooled condensers are more efficient than air-cooled condensers
and operate at much lower condensing temperatures.

This category of condenser is divided into two groups:

Water Waste System

a. Water waste system

b. Recirculated system
Recirculated System

 When continuous supply of inexpensive water is available, then the

water is taken from the supply, circulated in the condenser and disposed
to the sewer. This is known as water waste system.
 When inadequate ate and expensive supply of water is available then
the water used in the condenser is re cooled and used again and again
in the condenser similar to the steam power plants. This system is
known as recirculated system.
Working Of Water Waste System:

 In this system low pressure vapour

refrigerant taken into the compressor and
high pressure vapor refrigerant discharged
into condenser.

 Condenser has two inlet and two outlet. high

pressure vapour refrigerant and cold water
get entered into the condenser, the vapour
get condensed due to heat transfer between
two fluids.

 The liquid refrigerant send to the expansion

device and warm water connected to
sewage.

Fig 14
Recirculated System

 When inadequate and expensive supply of water is available then the water
used in the condenser is recooled and used again and again in the
condenser similar to the steam power plants. This system is known as
recirculated system.
 Generally the water supply rate through this type of condenser is 15
liters/min/ton of refrigerating capacity of the system which provides the
most economical balance between the compressor power and Pump power.
 Types of Water Cooled Condenser

General classification of water cooled condenser is given below,

Double tube condenser

Shell and Coil

Condenser

Shell and Tube

Condenser

Evaporative Condensers
 Double Tube
Condenser

 In the water flows through the

inside tube and refrigerant flows
through the annuals.

 This helps for getting extra air-

cooling on the outer surface in
addition to water-cooling.

 The counter flow arrangement is

preferred because it gives higher
log-mean temperature difference
(LMTD) and therefore gives high
rate of heat transfer.

Fig 15
 Shell and Coil Condenser

 This type of condenser can be used for

the limits up to 50 tons capacity.

 The refrigerant vapour enters at top of

the shell and gets condensed as it
comes in contact with low
temperature coil surface.

 The liquid is collected at the bottom of

the shell which is often used as
receiver.

 This condenser is preferable where

clean water is available because its
coil cannot be cleaned easily. Fig 16
 Shell and Tube Condenser

 This is universally used for all high

capacity units and it is most satisfactory
among all the types of condensers

 The headers which are provided with both

the ends are removable so that the tubes
can be perfectly cleaned by removing the
headers either mechanically or
chemically.

 These condensers are available from 2 to

1000 tons capacity units.

Fig 18
 Evaporative Condensers

 These condensers were developed for

big refrigeration systems used for air-
conditioning plants after 1930.

 These condensers are more preferable

where acute water shortage exists and
drain facilities are not available.

 These are also desirable where water

costs are also high and use of cooling
tower for small installations is
uneconomical and unpractical.

Fig 19
Advantages of Water Cooled Condenser

 Reduction of the quantity of the refrigerant in the circuit compared

to installations with air cooled condensers.

 Low water consumptions.

 Very high performance.

Disadvantages of Water Cooled Condenser

 Corrosion occur in this system due to using of water

 Weight is more
 Evaporator
 The refrigerant from the expansion valve comes into the evaporator below
the temperature required to be maintained in the evaporator and carries
the heat from the evaporator.
 The evaporator is known as cooler or freezer.
 The evaporators are manufactured in different sizes, shapes and types as
per requirements. Refrigerating effect is done at evaporator.
 Absorption of heat from refrigerated space is carried out
Factors Considered in the Design of the Evaporator

Heat Transfer

Materials

Velocity
Heat Transfer

 The heat is carried by the refrigerant from the air or water as per the
medium used for circulation.

 The refrigerant boils therefore the heat transfer coefficient of the

refrigerant side is considerably high compared with the heat transfer
coefficient of the other side which is the effect of convection.

 The heat transfer capacity of the evaporator is given by

Q=UA(Tr -Ts )KW

U=Overall heat transfer cocefficent
A=Area of evaporator surface
Tr =Temperature of the fluid passing through evaporator to be cooled
Ts =Saturation temperature of refrigerant at evaporator pressure
(Tr -Ts )=Temperature difference causing the heat flow
Material

 Good heat conducting material must be used

 Selection of material is mainly depends on the type of refrigerant used in
the system
 Brass and copper are good conductors of heat and also used with all
refrigerant except ammonia
 Freon should not be used with aluminum
Velocity

 Velocity of refrigerant increases the heat transfer coefficient also increases,

 Increase in velocity causes greater pressure drop,
 Velocity of refrigerant is must be maintained with in the recommended
velocity limit.
 The velocity of refrigerant is maintained with in the recommended limit
means heat transfer rate is maximum with lower pressure loss.
 Types of an Evaporator

Evaporators are divided into two groups:

Flooded Evaporators

Dry expansion
Evaporators
Flooded
Evaporators
The flooded evaporator is filled with liquid refrigerant,

It gives high heat transfer rate.

Float control is used to maintain the refrigerant level as

constant.

Liquid refrigerant is pass to the evaporator coil where it

absorb heat and converted into Liquid vapour refrigerant.
Fig 1 Flooded Evaporators
Baffle plate is used to drain the liquid present in out
come of an evaporator
Dry Expansion Evaporation

 Liquid refrigerant is fed into the dry

expansion evaporator through an
expansion device,

 The rate at which the liquid is fed

into evaporator depends upon:

1. Rate of vaporization,

2. Heat load on evaporator,

Fig 2 Dry expansion Evaporator

 The amount of liquid present in the dry expansion evaporator will vary with
the load on the evaporator.
 When the load on the evaporator is light, the amount of liquid in the
evaporator is small.
 As the load on the evaporator increases, the amount of liquid in the
evaporator increases to accommodate the greater load.
 Thus, the evaporator efficiency is greatest when the load on evaporator is
highest.
 Classification of Evaporator

The evaporator are also classified as per the mode of heat transfer

Natural Convection Evaporators

Forced Convection Evaporators

Natural Convection Evaporators

 These evaporator are used where low air

velocity and minimum dehydration of the
products are desired.

 The common examples of this type of

evaporators are household refrigerators,
water coolers and small freezers .

 The air circulation by natural convection

depends upon the temperature difference
between evaporator and the space to be
cooled.

 The air circulation depends on the size,

shape, location of the evaporator.
Fig 3
Forced Convection Evaporators G1
 These evaporators are used for cooling air
by forced circulation of air.

 These evaporators are more efficient than

natural convection evaporators because it
requires less cooling surface and higher
evaporative pressures can be used which
save considerable power input to the
compressor.

 The air velocities of 100 to 200/m min.

across the coil face are recommended.

 These evaporators are provided with fins to

increase the heat transfer rates.
Fig 4 Forced Convection Evaporator
 Forced convection evaporators

G2
 Types of Evaporators as per their Design

The different types of evaporators as per their design are described

below:

Shell and Tube Evaporator

Shell and Coil Evaporator

Double Pipe Evaporator

Plate Evaporator
Shell and Tube
Evaporator
 In this evaporator, the refrigerant is expanded into the tube and chilled
water is circulated through shell
 If the evaporator is operated flooded then the water is circulated through
the tubes and liquid refrigerant is passed through the shell
 The height of the liquid refrigerant in the shell is controlled by float valve
not shown
 Construction of shell and tube is similar to shell and tube condenser
 Baffle plates are used for mechanical rigidity, and control the flow direction

Fig 5 Shell and Tube Evaporator

Shell and coil Evaporator G
2 G
1
 In Shell and coil Evaporator
liquid refrigerant is passed
through the coil
 Water is circulates around the
tube
 The liquid refrigerant through
coil takes heat from medium to
be refrigerate and converted
into vapour

Fig 6 Shell and Coil Evaporator

Double pipe evaporator

 Liquid refrigerant is passed through one tube

 Medium to be refrigerate is passed through

another tube as shown in figure,
 The medium to be refrigerate is cooled by
liquid refrigerant while passing around the
tube.

Fig 7 Double pipe evaporator

Plate type evaporator

 Medium to be refrigerate is passed

through the tube,

 Cooling medium passed over the

tube,

 These are generally used in home

freezes, beverage coolers, and ice-
cream plants.

Fig 8 Plate Type Evaporators

 Expansion Devices
Functions of Expansion Devices :

 It must reduce the pressure of the refrigerant coming from the

condenser and temperature also as per the requirement of the system.

 It must regulate the flow of the refrigerant as per the load on the
evaporator.
Types of an expansion device:

Capillary Tube

Automatic Expansive Valve

Thermostatic Expansion
Valve

Low-side Float valve

High-side Float Valve

solenoid valve
 Capillary Tube

 A capillary tube is universally used as a refrigerant control devices in

refrigerating systems which use hermetic compressor because of its simplicity,
reliability, and cost saving advantages.
 Its resistance to flow permits the capillary to be used as a pressure reducing
device to meter the flow of refrigerant given to the evaporator.
 This device is only used for small capacity milts like domestic refrigerators,
water coolers and small commercial freezes.
 It is small diameter tube connected between condenser and evaporator. The
required pressure drop (pressure difference condenser and evaporator
pressures)is caused due to heavy frictional resistance offered by a small
diameter tube.
 The resistance is directly proportional to the length and inversely
proportional to the diameter. Different length and diameter combinations
are recommended for the required pressure drop and flow quantity.

 The rate of flow for a selected capillary tube is the function of the pressure
differential between the condenser and evaporator.

 As the load increases in summer, the tube supplies more quantity of

refrigerant flow as an effect of increased condenser pressure (or pressure
difference)with air-cold condensers used on domestic units.

 Similarly when the load on the unit is reduced in winter, the flow through
the tube decreases as an effect of decreased condenser pressure.

 The capillary is a self-compensating device over a limited range of pressure

difference.
Advantages of Capillary Tube

 It is simple in construction and no maintenance is required.

 This requires less starting torque to start the compressor.

 System using this device does not require receiver.

 Its cost is also considerably low compared with other devices.

Disadvantages of Capillary Tube

 The refrigerant must be free from moisture and dirt otherwise it will choke
the tube and stop the flow of refrigerant.

 It cannot be used with high fluctuating load conditions.

 Automatic Expansion Valve

 Automatic (constant pressure)

expansion valve works in response to
the pressure changes in the evaporator
due to increase in load (pressure
increases) or due to decrease in load
(pressure decreases).
 This valve maintains a constant
pressure throughout the varying load
operation on the evaporator controlling
the quantity of refrigerating flowing
into evaporator.

Fig 9 Automatic Expansion valve

 This consists of needle valve, a seat , a diaphragm and a spring.

 The initial tension of the spring can be adjusted by a screw.

The opening of the valve in the set is controlled by the two opposing
forces.

(a) The tension of the spring and

(b) pressure acting on the diaphragm.

 Once the spring is adjusted for a desired evaporator pressure and given
load, then the valve operates automatically with the changing load
conditions in the evaporator.

 This maintain constant pressure inside the evaporator as per the load
variation.

 The major disadvantage is poor efficiency of operation (response)

compared with other expansion devices.
Fig 10 Pressure acting on the diaphragm
 Thermostatic Expansion Valve

 Its operation is used for maintaining a

constant degree of superheat at the
evaporator outlet.
 The valve motion to allow the flow more or
less refrigerant to maintain constant degree
of superheat at the evaporator outlet is
controlled by three pressures.

Pb = Pressure in the bulb

Ps=Spring tension

Pe=Pressure in the evaporator

Fig 11 Thermostatic Expansion Valve

 Under normal operating condition, the pressure
exerted by the vapour in the controlling bulb on
the diaphragm is balanced by the spring tension
and the pressure in the evaporator.
Pb  Ps  Pc
 Load increases means the saturated vapour
coming out from the evaporator converted into
super heated,
 Temperature of the bulb increases and also
increases the pressure of the bulb so valve will
open, and allowing more refrigerant.
 The reverse (closing of the valve) takes place when
the load on the evaporator decreases. Fig 11.1
 The degree of superheat of the vapour leaving the
evaporator depends upon the initial setting of the
spring tension.
The major problems with the operation of this valve are listed below :

 Frictional and mechanical losses in the valve can adversely affect accurate control.

 Continuous flexing of diaphragm can lead to fracture.

 Changes of system head pressure can seriously change flow pattern around the
valve.

 Changes in system loads (wide flow variations) can result in large superheat
change.
 Low-Side Float Valve

 Low-side float valve maintains

constant level of liquid refrigerant by
supplying the quantity of liquid
required to take the load in the
evaporator.

 It maintains the evaporator always

filled with the liquid refrigerant under
all load conditions irrespective of
evaporator temperature and
pressure.

 This method of control is used only

on flooded evaporator.

 This is used in multiple or in parallel

working evaporators used in
commercial or industrial applications.
Fig 12
 High-Side Float valve
 The float is used in high pressure liquid line
instead of low-pressure.

 It controls the flow of liquid refrigerant

supplied to the evaporator according to the
load on evaporator.

 This can be used with dry expansion system.

 The high pressure float control may be

installed either above or below the
evaporator as it is independent of the liquid
level in evaporator.

 The liquid level in the float chamber drops as

the compressor is stopped and control valve
is closed.

 Remains close until the compressor is Fig 13

restarted.
 Solenoid Control Valve:(high temperature in evaporator)

 In many refrigeration systems, system

is kept off due to temperature increases
(or) decreases to particular
temperature (this is required
temperature in evaporator)
 The system restarted again when the
required temperature is attained in the
evaporator

Fig 14
 This is accomplished by using the solenoid valve.

 These solenoid valves are placed in the liquid line between the condenser and
evaporator.

 This valve either allows to flow constant quantity of refrigerant to the

evaporator or stops the flow.

 When the temperature in the evaporator becomes too high then the bellows
will expand and electric contact will be closed

 Current will flow through the solenoid valve and energized solenoid pulls the
plunger up allowing the maximum area for the refrigerant to flow,

 The contact will be released when original condition will be maintained again.
 Solenoid Control Valve(low temperature in evaporator)

 When the temperature in the

evaporator goes too down, the bellows
again close the contact,

 The plunger is pulled up and the path

to the refrigerant flow is closed.

 The contact will be released when the

original condition is stored.

Fig 15
 Solenoid Control Valve(Variable refrigerant flow control)

 The solenoid valve can also be used for the

variable flow quantity of refrigerant liquid.
 According to the load conditions, the
pointer P with is attached to the bellows
will also change the resistance in the
circuit.
 The voltage E is supplied to the solenoid.
 The force on the plunger will depend upon
the intensity of the current which in turn
depends upon E.
 This (E) is governed by bellows which is Fig 16
sensitive to the temperature.
 The plunger will take intermediate positions according to the current flow varying
the quantity of refrigerant flow according to the load on evaporator.
 Refrigerants

 A refrigerant is a fluid used for heat transfer in a refrigeration system. Most

refrigerants absorb heat during evaporation at low temperature and low pressure
and reject heat during condensation at a higher temperature and higher
pressure.
 Any substance capable of absorbing heat from another required substance can
be used as refrigerant, i.e., ice, water, air or brine.
 The refrigerants which carry the heat in the form of latent heat and also
dissipate in the form of latent heat are more efficient than the refrigerants which
carry the heat in the form of sensible heat.
 Air was used a refrigerant in many refrigerant systems in olden days considering
most safest refrigerant.
 Ammonia, carbon dioxide and Sulphur-dioxide were also used as successful
refrigerants for different purposes.
 Classification Of Refrigerants

The refrigerants are classified into two groups

Primary refrigerants:
 Primary refrigerants directly take the part in the refrigeration system

Secondary refrigerants:
 In secondary refrigerants are first cooled with the help of the primary
refrigerants and are further used for cooling purposes.
 Primary Refrigerants

 Primary refrigerants directly take the part in the refrigeration system

Classification Of Primary Refrigerant

Halocarbon Compounds

Azeotropes

Hydro-carbons

Inorganic Compounds

Unsaturated Organic
Compounds
 Halocarbon Compounds

 Refrigerants belonging to the halocarbon group are derivatives of the

hydrocarbons obtained by substituting chlorine or fluorine for the hydrogen
atoms in methane and ethane.

 As chlorine and fluorine are both halogens, this group of refrigerants is called
the halogenated hydrocarbons or halocarbons.

 They are sometimes referred to freons which are colourless, non-inflammable,

non-corrodent to most metals and generally non-toxic

 Common refrigerants in this group are R-11, R-12, R-13 and R-22.
Table 1 Some Of The Halocarbon Refrigerant
 Azeotropes

 An azeotrope is a mixture of two substances which cannot be separated

into its components by distillation.
 It evaporates and condenses as a single substance and Its properties are
completely different from its constituents.
 For example, azeotrope R-500 is a mixture composed of 73.8 % R-12 and
26.2 per cent R-152.
 Hydro-carbons

Refrigerants belonging to the hydrocarbon group are ethane, propane,

butane and isobutane.

They are produced from petroleum in an oil refinery.

This group of refrigerants is used in the refrigeration systems in oil

refineries and the petrochemical industry due to their low cost and
ready availablility.

Hydrocarbons are flammable and so safety precautions are of utmost

importance in the petrochemical industry.

Table 2 Some Of The Hydro-carbon Refrigerant:

 Inorganic Compounds

 The refrigerants under this group were universally used for all
purposes before the introduction of halocarbon group.

 They are still used for different purposes due to their inherent
thermodynamic and physical properties.

Table 3 Some Of The Inorganic Refrigerant:

 Unsaturated Organic Compounds

 The refrigerants under this group are mainly hydrocarbon group

with ethylene and propylene base.

Table 4 Some Of The Unsaturated Organic Refrigerant:

 Desirable Properties Of An Ideal Refrigerant
 Safe working properties.

 Physical properties.

 Thermodynamic properties.

 Other properties.

Safe Working
Properties:
The safe properties of the refrigerant include the followings:

 It should be chemically inert.

 It should be non-flammable, non-explosive and non-toxic both in pure state

and when mixed with air in any proportion.

 It should not react with lubricating oil and with the materials used in
construction of refrigeration system.

 It should not have bas effect on the stored material when the leak develops in
the system.
Few safe working properties are described below:

Toxicity

Flammability

Corrosive Property

Chemically stability

Effect on Stored
Product
 Toxicity

 The effect of refrigerant on the human body is one of the major considerations in
the selection of the refrigerant and that is because of the possibility of the
leakage of refrigerant from refrigeration system.
 Toxic nature of the refrigerant may cause the injury to the human body or death
depending upon its percentage in air. It increase suffocation and poisions the air
used for breathing.
 Some refrigerants which are non-toxic in nature become toxic when mixed with
air with certain percentage. This is particularly true with all fluorocation
refrigerants.
 In the following table, the toxic effects
Table 5 of different refrigerants are listed.
 Flammability
 Ideal refrigerant should not have any danger of explosion in the presence of
air or in association with lubricating oil.

 Most of the refrigerant commonly sued are non-flammable so the danger of

T1 explosion does not exist.

 Freon and CO2 come under this group. The refrigerants of hydrocarbon
family are highly flammable. Methane, ethane and propane come under this
group.

Corrosive Property

 The Freon refrigerants are non-corrosive with all materials such as brass,
copper, zinc, iron, tin, lead and aluminium.
T2
 The refrigerants become acidic in the presence of air and water.

 Magnesium and aluminium should not be used with Freon refrigerants as

they are readily attacked by acids.
 Chemically stability
 An ideal refrigerant should not decompose at temperature normally
encountered in the system.

T3  Some refrigerants disintegrate forming non-condensable gases which

increase condensing pressure and sometimes cause vapour lock.

Effect on Stored Product

 The refrigerants used in cold storage plants and in domestic refrigerators
should not affect the quality (color, test,. etc). of the material when it comes
in contact with stored product.

T4  Freon's have no effect on foods, meat, vegetables, flowers, furs and dairy
products. There will not be any change in color, test or texture of the material
which is exposed to Feron.
 Physical Properties

Specific Volume

Specific heat of liquid and

vapour

Thermal Conductivity

Viscosity

Dielectric strength
 Specific Volume
 Low specific volume of the refrigerant at the suction into the compressor is
T1 always desirable, because it reduces the size of the compressor for the same
refrigeration capacity.

 The reciprocating compressors are always used with low specific volume at
suction where the centrifugal compressors are desirable with high specific volume
of the refrigerant at suction.

Specific Heat Of Liquid And Vapour

2  Low specific heat of liquid refrigerant and high specific heat of vapour refrigerant
are desirable because both tend to increase the refrigerating effect per kg of
refrigerant.
3 Thermal Conductivity
 The thermal conductivities of liquids and gaseous refrigerants are required for
findings the heat transfer coefficients in evaporators and condensers
 Viscosity
4  This property of refrigerant in both states carries importance for calculating heat
transfer coefficients in evaporators and condensers.
 Low viscosities of refrigerants in both states are desirable for better heat transfer
and low pumping power.
Dielectric Strength
5  The electric resistance of the refrigerant becomes an important factor when it is
used in hermetically sealed unit where the motor is exposed to the refrigerant.
Thermodynamic properties

Boiling Point

Freezing Point

Evaporator and Condenser

Pressure

Critical Temperature and Pressure

Latent Heat of Refrigerant

 Boiling Point
 Low boiling temperature at atmospheric pressure of the refrigerant
is required for an efficient refrigerant.

 It becomes necessary to operate the compressor at high vacuums if

the boiling point of the refrigerant is high at atmospheric pressure.

 High boiling point of the refrigerant at atmospheric pressure reduces

the capacity of the system and lowers the operating cost.

Table 6 The Boiling Points Of The Different Refrigerants Which Are

Commonly Used Are Listed Below:
 Freezing Point
 Low freezing point of the refrigerant is necessary because the refrigerant
should not freeze under required evaporator temperature.

 The refrigeration must have a freezing point well below the operating
evaporator temperature.

 The freezing points of most of the refrigerants are below - 30°Cso that this
property is not seriously considered for normal refrigeration systems

Table 7 The Freezing Points Of Few Refrigerants Are Listed Below:

 Evaporator And Condenser Pressure
 It is always desirable to have positive pressures in evaporator and
condenser for the required temperatures, but the pressures should not to be
too high above atmosphere.

 Too high pressures require the robust construction of the refrigeration

system which requires high initial cost and high operating cost also.

 Positive pressures in a evaporator are necessary to prevent the leakage of

air and moisture into refrigeration system.

Table 8 The pressure ranges for different refrigeration's are listed

below:
 Critical
. Temperature And Pressure
 The critical temperature of the
vapour is defined as a temperature Table 9
above which the vapour cannot be
condensed irrespective of any high
pressure.

 The critical temperature of the

refrigerant used should be higher
than the temperature occurring
with in the condenser for easy
condensation of the refrigerant
vapour.

 The air cannot be used as cooling

medium in condenser for C02
refrigeration system because the
critical pressure of CO2 at critical
temperature is slightly above the
required condenser pressure of
normally operated system.
 Latent Heat Of Refrigerant

 High latency heat of refrigerant at evaporator temperature is desirable

because the refrigerating effect per kg of refrigerant will be high.

 The weight of refrigeration required to be circulated in the system per ton of

refrigeration will be low if the latent heat of refrigerant is high.

 This also reduce the initial cost of the refrigerant used in the system.

 The refrigerants with low latent heats can be used by increasing the size,
number and speed of the cylinder if other properties are satisfactory.
 Important Refrigerants

Ammonia:
 Lowest running cost

 Leaks easy to detect

 Cheapest refrigerant

Carbon Dioxide:
 It is non-toxic, non-poisonous and non-flammable but causes death due
to suffocation when present in large quantities.

Sulphur-dioxide:
 Sulphur-dioxide was widely used for domestic refrigerator during the
period 1920 to 1930. It is replaced almost by Freon refrigerants.
 Refrigerant Nomenclature
 The refrigerants of methane and ethane series are known by their numbers
instead of chemical names.

 To simplify the terminology; a number system was developed and it is more

commonly used today.

The international designation of refrigerants is given by C mHnClpEq for methane (CH4)

as well as ethane(C2H6) base in which m+p+q=2m+2 and complete numerical

designation is given by Rm-1(n+1)q in which m,n,p q are constants.

Given the designations for the following refrigerants.
(i) Dichloro-Tetrafluoro-Ethane
The chemical formula is C2Cl2F4
As m=2,n=0,p=2 and q=4
n+p+q=2(m+1)
0+2+4=2(2+1)
6=6
It satisfies the balance equation so the chemical formula is correct.
Now, designation=R(2-1)(0+1)4=R114
Defluro-monochloro-methane

The Chemical formula is CHCIF2

AS m=l, n=1, p=1, q=2
n+p+q=2(m+1)
1+1+2=2(1+1)
4=4
It satisfies the balance equation, so the chemical formule is correct.
Now, Designation = R(1+1)(1+1)2 = R22

Monochloro-Tetrafluro Ethane

The Chemical formula is C2Cl2F4

AS m=2, n=0, p=2, q=4
n+p+q=2(m+1)
0+2+4=2(2+1)
6=6
It satisfies the balance equation, so the chemical formule is
correct.
Now, Designation =R(m-1)(m+1)p
 Secondary Refrigerants

The secondary refrigerant circuit is commonly used in all big commercial

and industrial refrigeration plants.

Water:

 In air-conditioning plants, chilled water is used for cooling and

dehumidifying the air either with the help of cooling coil or with the help of
water spray unit
Brines:

 When the temperatures required to be maintained are below the freezing

point of
 water then the water cannot be used as secondary refrigerant. In such
cases, brine solutions are commonly used.

 The lowest freezing temperature is achieved at eutectic point. The eutectic

temperature of calcium chloride brine is - 55°C at corresponding salt
concentration of 30% by weight.
 Ozone Depletion

 An issue of growing concern for the present day environment is the impact of the
various refrigerants on the ozone depletion and global warming of the
environment.
 The main culprits in this case are the chlorine containing halogenated
hydrocarbons, commonly known as chlorofluorocarbons or CFC which are being
used as refrigerants .
 The Earth’s atmosphere is made up of various layers. The layer just above the
Earth’s surface is known as the troposphere. The troposphere extends up to 10
km from the surface.
 The ozone layer is just above the troposphere and located in the stratosphere.
The stratospheric ozone is Earth’s natural protection to harmful ultraviolet (UV)
radiation from the sun. UV radiation is harmful to human, plant and animal life.
The ozone layer gets depleted by the action of these refrigerants .
 CFCs, when they are released from the surface of the Earth, rise slowly
into the stratosphere.

 Here they are bombarded by the incoming UV light from the Sun, which
releases the chlorine atoms from the parent compound.

 It is this chlorine atom which reacts with the ozone molecules. The
detailed reactions are given below:

Chlorofluorocarbon Irradiated with UV light  free Cl

Cl+O3 ClO+O 2
CIO+O  CI+O2

 The free chlorine atom can again take part in the reaction with another
ozone atom. A single chlorine atom, released by the action of UV radiation
on CFCs, can destroy thousands of ozone molecules.
 Ozone hole

It means the density of the ozone molecules are reduced in the ozone (O 3 )
layer. The ozone hole is the region over Antarctica
Causes of ozone depletion:

 Catalyzed by halocarbons (carbon compounds containing fluorine, chlorine,

bromine and iodine)

 Examples: CFCs ,HCFCs, halons, methyl bromide etc.,

 Halogen atoms catalyze ozone layer depletion by destroying ozone molecules

and forming oxygen molecules.

 Much more serious in Antarctica than other regions on the planet

 Impacts on human health

 Skin Cancer

 Cataracts and Other Eye Damages

 Suppression of Immunity
G3
Suppression of Immunity
G1

Cancer G2 Cataracts in eye

 Global warming

 Global warming is the rise in the average temperature of Earth's atmosphere

and oceans due to green house effect.

 The greenhouse effect is a process by which thermal radiation from a

planetary surface is absorbed by atmospheric greenhouse gases, and is re-
radiated in all directions.
Greenhouse Gases
• Carbon dioxide
– combustion of solid waste, fossil fuels (oil, natural gas, and coal), and wood
and wood products

• Methane
– production and transport of coal, natural gas, and oil. Methane emissions
also result from the decomposition of organic wastes in municipal solid
waste landfills, and the raising of livestock.

• Nitrous oxide
– agricultural and industrial activities, as well as during combustion of solid
waste and fossil fuels.

• hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and sulfur hexafluoride

(SF6),
– industrial processes.

 The global warming potential of all gases are shown in table

 Table 10 Global Warming Potential

Gas GWP
Carbon dioxide (CO2) 1
Methane (CH4)* 21
Nitrous oxide (N2O) 310
HFC-23 11,700
HFC-125 2,800
HFC-134a 1,300
HFC-143a 3,800
HFC-152a 140
HFC-227ea 2,900
HFC-236fa 6,300
HFC-4310mee 1,300
CF4 6,500
C2F6 9,200
C4F10 7,000
C6F14 7,400
SF6 23,900