Ethiopian Civil Service University

College of Urban Engineering and Engineering

Urban Land Develoment and Management

(ULDM) Department

Research Methods and Techniques (RMT)

Week-1

February 2022
Course/module Information
 Module name: Research Methods & Techniques (RMT)
 Module Code and No.: CUDE6052
 Program: Masters Regular
 Offered in 1st year, 2nd semester of 2014EC (2021/22)
 ECTS: 7 or 4.2 Credit hrs.
 Workload: contact hours- 50; non-contact-100; total-150
(i.e. 2/3 of this for students and 1/3 for instructor)
 Schedule: Teusday Beforenoon (8:30-12:00AM)
 Room: SGS bldg Room-D
 Instructor information- Dr. Kassa Moges; office no. 305,
Block-SGS.
Learning outcomes
By the End of the Module Participant will be able to:
 Make them familiar with the art of using different research

methods and techniques.

 Understand the concept, paradigms, approaches strategy,

process and logic of scienctific method in research

 Comprehend research design and methods for research

project
 Formulate research concept, variables and scale

 Design sample and data collection instruments

 Apply different research analysis and presentation tools

 Formulate research topic and develop research proposals

and write research report

 Understand the role of computers in research and apply

SPSS software tools for data analysis and presentation

Teaching & Learning Methods
 Power point presentations (PPP) based Lecture
 Active learning

 Q&A

 Discussion in and out of classroom

 Individual work and presentation

 Group work and presentation

 Lab Practica

Media
 Power point slides, Module reference, Books,

Research Articles, Video, flip charts, sheets,

computers etc.
Assessment

 Assignment-I: Research Proposal

Development – 20%
 Assignment-II: Research Proposal

Defence or Article review- 20%

 SPSS practical test: 20%

 Final Examination: 40%

 Module Introduction … Cont’d
Grading System
Score Fixed Number Letter Grade
[95,100] 4.00 A+
[90, 95) 4.00 A
[85, 90) 3.75 A-
[80, 85) 3.50 B+
[75, 80) 3.00 B
[70, 75) 2.75 B-
[58, 70) 2.50 C+
[50, 58) 2.00 C
[40, 50) 1.00 D
< 40 0.00 F

6
Course Policies
 General: All academic policies and guidelines issued by the
ECSU are to be followed by the teacher and the students
scrupulously.
 Attendance: Regular class attendance is expected from the teacher
and the students alike. Wherever possible, the students must take
the permission of the teacher before remaining absent. In case the
instructor misses a class, he should consult the students and
arrange make-up classes. A minimum attendance of 85% is
essential to be eligible to appear in the final examination.
 Conduct: Students are expected to be attentive in the class.
Distracting behavior will not be permitted in the class room.
Hence, Mobile phones are to be switched off in the class room.
Punctuality in class attendance is expected from both the teacher
and the students.
 COVID-19 infection protection protocols
Plagiarism ALERT!!!

AVOID PLAGIARISM

Dealt as per regulation

8
 Class delivery plan
Week Sessions Learning Unit
1 1&2 Introduction to module and Research
2 3&4 Sampling: Sampling design, its steps and need, techniques, sample size
3 5&6 Qualitative research: Types of qual research and data Analysis methods
Quantitaive research-1: Types of quan research, Descriptive Stat,
4 7&8
Correlation
5 9&10 Quantitaive research-2: Probablity, OLS method, Regression analysis
6 11&12 Quantitaive research-3: Testing hypothesis, Parametric tests
7 13&14 Quantitaive research-4: Non-parametric tests
8 15&16 Data collection methods and Methods of Data Presentation
9 17&18 Proposal Development, Report Writing, Ethics and Referencing Styles
10 19&20 SPSS in research
11 21&22 Coreleration statistical analysis with SPSS (Simple, multiple and partial)
Regression statistical analysis with SPSS (Linear-Simple and multiple)
12 23&24 Regression statistical analysis with SPSS (Non linear, binary logistic,
multi- nominal logistic , probit)
13 25&26 Compare means with SPSS (t test and ANOVA)
Non parametric test with SPSS (Chi-square, Kuskal wallis, Freidman and
Wilcoxon, Mann whitney U test)
14 27&28 Data presentations- graph buildings with SPSS
15 29&30 SPSS Lab work Practice
16 31&32 SPSS test
 References and Literatures
 American Psychological Association (2010) Publication Manual of American Psychological Association. Sixth Edition. Washington DC: APA
 Dawson, C.( 2002) Practical Research Methods:A User-Friendly Guide to Mastering Research. Oxford: How To Books, pp. 14-23
 Babbie, E., (2007), The Practice of Social Research, Eleventh Edition, Belmont: Thomson Wadsworth,
 Yeraswork Admassie (2010) Social Research Methods. Addis Ababa: AAU Press
 Kothari, C.R. (2004) Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques. Second Edition. New Dehli: New Age International
 Bryman , A.and Cramer, D. (1999) Quantitative Data Analysis with SPSS Release 8 for Windows: for social scientists. London, Routledge,
 Creswell, J. W.(2004). Educational Research: Planning, Conducting and Evaluating: Qualitative and Quantitative Research , 2nd ed.
Columbus, OH. Prentice Hall.
 Jean Lee., (1992) . Quantitative Versus Qualitative Research Methods-two Approaches to Organization studies, in Asia pacific Journal of
Management, Apr.,9(1): 87-94
 Jonson, B.,(2004).Educational Research: qualitative, quantitative and Mixed Approaches, 2nd ed. Boston: Allyn and Bacon
 Kumsa. A,(2004). Research Design, Data Collection and Analysis: A Training Manual. UNCRD-No.1
 Spector, P. (1981) Research Design. Beverly Hills: Sage. American Psychological Association. (2001). Publication Manual of the American
Psychological Association (5th ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
 American Psychological Association (1999, August 9). Electronic reference formats recommended by the American Psychological
Association. Available from:http://www.apa.org/journals/webref.html (Accessed 4 October 1999).
 Harnack, A. & Kleppinger, E. (2000). Online! A reference guide to using internet sources.Available from:
http://webster.comnet.edu/apa/apa_index.htm (Accessed 24 August 2000).
 Vista University Academic Language Editing Service. (1999). A Summary of the Adapted Harvard Method of Referencing. Available
from:http://hagar.up.ac.za/catts/learner/lindavr/Harvard/html (Accessed 3 August 2000).
 University of Sunderland. (1999). Harvard Reference System. Available from:http://osiris.sunderland.ac.uk/~cs0jwr?IT&P/refs.htm (Accessed
3 August 2000).
 University of Bournemouth. (1998). Harvard System. Available from:http://www.bournemouth.ac.uk/library2/html/Harvard_system.html
(Accessed 3 August 2000).
 University of Bournemouth. (1998). Guide to Citing Internet Sources. Available from:
 http://www.bournemouth.ac.uk/library2/html/guide_ot_citing_internet_sourc.html (Accessed 3August 2000).
 Loft, B. and Jones, R.M. (2000). Reference styles: Harvard and Vancouver systems.Available from:
http://library.bma.org.uk/html/refsystem.html (Accessed 3 August 2000).
 Smit, R. (2000). Bibliographic References. In: Rossouw, D, editor. Intellectual Tools: Skills for the Human Sciences. Translated by C. Fourie.
Lynnwood Ridge: Amabhuku Publications.
 Introduction to Research
Concepts and Essence of Research

Introduction to Research
 Definition, concept, characteristics, types

and process of research

 Philosophy and paradigm of research

 Research desgin
 Concept, variables, scale and reliability &
validity in research
 Introduction to Research

Discussion question

 What is research?
 Concepts and Essence of Research
Research is:
 a careful investigation or inquiry especially through search

for new facts in any branch of knowledge.

 organized way of finding a solution to a problem or answer

to questions.
 a scientific and systematic search for pertinent information

on a specific topic.
 a voyage of discovery or search for new knowledge.

inquisitiveness is the mother of all knowledge and the

method, which man employs for obtaining the knowledge
of whatever the unknown, can be termed as research.
● the manipulation of things, concepts or symbols concerning
conclusion, generalization and the formulation of a theory
is also research.
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 Cont…
 It is usual that expectations of the research process are
markedly different between the physical and the social
sciences.
 In the physical sciences a research endeavor is expected to
be strictly controlled at each step, whereas in the social
sciences rigid control cannot be enforced.
 In any research, your philosophical orientation may stem
from one of the several paradigms and approaches in
research:
– positivist, – qualitative,
– interpretive, – quantitative and
– phenomenology, – the academic discipline in which you
– action or participatory, have been trained
– feminist,
 Cont…
The concept of ‘validity’ can be applied to any aspect
of the research process.
• It ensures that in a research study correct data,
instruments & procedures have been applied to find
answers to a question.
• ‘Reliability’ refers to the quality of a measurement
procedure that provides consistency, repeatability
and accuracy.
• ‘Unbiased and objective’ means that you have
taken each step in an unbiased manner and drawn
each conclusion to the best of your ability and
without introducing your own vested interest.
• Researcher makes a distinction between bias and
subjectivity.
 Discussion Question

 What are the objectives of a Research?

 What are the Characteristics of a Research?
 Objectives of Research
 Finding a solution to a problem and a new insight or
knowledge is the general goal of a research.
 Research objectives broad groupings:

I. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve

new insights into it (exploratory/formulative research);
II. To portray accurately the characteristics of a
particular individual, situation or a group (descriptive
research);
III. To determine the frequency with which something
occurs or with which it is associated with something
else (diagnostic research);
IV. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between
variables (hypothesis testing research).
 Characteristics of Research
 Research is a process for collecting, analyzing & interpreting
information to answer questions.
 demands accurate data, observation and description.
 emphasizes the development of conclusion, generalizations,
principles, or theories what will be helpful in predicting future
occurrences.
To qualify as research, the process must have certain characteristics:

systematic, rigorous, Scientific, valid & verifiable, empirical, critical, and

Controlled.
The two main research paradigms
 Philosophical beliefs, views and organizing frameworks that guide
researchers to design and conduct a research.
 Two main paradigms of research in the social sciences are Positivist and

Naturalistic approach.
1.Positivist approach:
views the world as existing independently of our knowledge of it.
Researchers seek objectivity in their explanation of social reality.

The researcher is viewed as detached from the subjects under study.

explanations are based on empirical evidence and tested theories.

likely to adopt Quantitative research which is empirical in nature for

identification of causal relationships, logical conclusions and the making of

predictions.
Knowledge is produced by deductive reasoning approach.

The paradigm that is rooted in the physical sciences, also called as the

systematic, scientific. Associated with questionnaires, social surveys and

experimental design.
Continued…..
2. Naturalistic/interpretivism/
constructionism approach:
 based on the assumption that the researcher cannot be
detached from the subjects being studied.
 provides an understanding of social reality that is based
on the subjective interpretation of the researcher.
 It requires Qualitative research and qualitative
methodology.
 inductive reasoning approach rather than logic.
 qualitative, ethnographic, ecological. Favors
ethnography, unstructured interviews and other
qualitative techniques.
 Three beliefs thus characterize positivism:
1) that the social sciences address problems similar to those of
the natural sciences;
2) that the social sciences should search for social causation
when explaining human activity and aspire to deductive
explanations; and
3) that they should deal with systems and wholes.
 Social constructionism rooted in social science disciplines
1. Knowledge arises from social processes and interaction
2. Social scientific knowledge is no different from everyday
knowledge.
3. Believe that people make their own reality and that there are
no universal laws external to human interaction waiting to be
discovered.

21
 The Research Process (step 1-8)
It is the series of interrelated, systematic and cyclic
steps/stages in conducting a research.
Step 1: Identify the Problem
Step 2: Review the Literature
Step 3: Clarify the Problem
Step 4: Clearly Define Terms and Concepts
Step 5: Define the Population and sample
Step 6: Develop the Instrumentation Plan-road
map
Step 7: Collect Data
Step 8: Analyze the Data
The chart given below illustrates the interdependency
among the stages of the research process.
 Research types
 The classification of the types of a research
study on the basis of these perspectives is not
mutually exclusive.
 From the perspective of application- pure or
applied research
 From the perspective of objectives-
exploratory, descriptive, explanatory, and
correlational
 From the perspective of the enquiry mode-
qualitative or quantitative
 1. Perspective of application- Pure
 Involves the testing of hypotheses containing very abstract
research
and specialized concepts.
 concerned with formulation of new knowledge and theory.
 Concerned with the development, examination, verification
and refinement of research methods, procedures, techniques
and tools that form the body of research methodology.
 The knowledge produced through pure research is sought in
order to add to the existing body of knowledge of research
methods.
 Its purpose is intellectually interesting to the investigator and
might thus have some social application in the future, but
have no application to social problems in the present time.
 Example- Research on natural phenomenon, human
behavior, pure mathematics.
Applied research
 is research with findings that can be applied to solve
social problems of immediate concern.
 It seeks to find a solution for an immediate problem
facing a society or an industrial / business organization.
 The research techniques, procedures and methods that
form the body of research methodology are applied to
the collection of information about various aspects of a
situation, issue, problem or phenomenon so that the
information gathered can be used in other ways – such
as for policy formulation, administration and the
enhancement of understanding of a phenomenon.
 Example- It covers a wide range of social science areas
including education.
2. Objectives Perspective- Descriptive
research
 Types of researches observe the social reality,
phenomenon, events and so on, and describes it.
 The purpose is description of the state of affairs

as it exists at present (not to forecast).

 Here, the researcher has no control over the

variables, he or she can only report what has

happened or what is happening .
 Such a research observe and report reality.
 They try to answer what happened, how much,

who, when, where and what level

 surveys and fact- finding enquiries are employed

E.g. census, Assessing the level of development of

plots given for residents in 2010; Public transport
problems in Addis Ababa
Correlational research
 To discover or establish the existence of a relationship/
association/interdependence between two or more aspects of
a situation or variables.
 Positive correlation: For example, people’s height and shoe
size tend to be positively correlated. This means that for the
most part, if a person is tall, they are likely to have a large
shoe size, and conversely, if they are short, they are likely to
have a smaller shoe size.
 Negative Correlation: For example, warmer temperatures
outside may be negatively correlated with the number of hot
chocolates sold at a local coffee shop.
 This type of research does not imply causation: Except
revealing important connections between variables it doesn’t tell
you that one necessarily causes the other.
Correlational- examples……..
 What is the impact of an advertising campaign
on the sale of a product?
 What is the relationship between stressful living
and the incidence of heart attack?
 What is the relationship between fertility and
mortality?
 What is the relationship between technology and
unemployment?
 What is the effect of a health service on the
control of a disease, or the home environment
on educational achievement?
 Explanatory research
 To identify and explain causal relationship between variables.
 concerned with cause and effect relationship and how one or
more variables affect changes in another variable.
 to clarify why and how there is a relationship and tries to explain
why certain things happened as they are.
 E.g. Identifying the factors that lead to land speculation

 Causes are referred as independent variable and effects are

considered as dependent variables,
 however, the relationship between independent and dependent
variable, sometimes there might be an intermediate variable
known as intervening variable.
 E.g. in the study of the effect of socio-economic background of

a student’s family on learning, the variables such as IQ, age,

school and other facilities may act as intervening variables.
Explanatory…..

 To conclude the existence of causal

relationship, the following three criteria need
to be fulfilled:
 Correlation-change in one variable is associated
with change in another variable
 Time order- cause need to precede effect
 Non-spurious relationship- less experimental
error is needed. you need to make sure that the
two variables are being affected by other cause
Exploratory research

 Undertaken with the objective either to

explore an area where little is known or to
investigate the possibilities of undertaking a
particular research study
 Feasibility study or a pilot study
 Small-scale study is undertaken to decide if it
is worth carrying out a detailed investigation
 Conducted to develop, refine and/or test
measurement tools and procedures
Exploratory…..
 Such studies are conducted on new research issue
which have not been researched before
 E.g. the first person who studied Awra Amba community
 It is a rough assessment, which usually followed by
full-fledged research
 Exploratory research is undertaken with the purpose
of
 Satisfying researcher’s curiosity for better understanding
 To test the feasibility of undertaking a more extensive
research
 To develop a method to be employed in any subsequent
studies (pilot survey)
3. Mode of Enquiry Perspective

 The choice between quantitative

and qualitative approaches (or
structured or unstructured) should
depend upon:
Aim of your enquiry: exploration,
confirmation or quantification; and
use of the findings-policy formulation
or process understanding.
Structured approach

 In the structured approach everything

that forms the research process –
objectives, design, sample, and the
questions that you plan to ask of
respondents – is predetermined
 More appropriate to determine the

extent of a problem, issue or

phenomenon
Structured approach- Eg……

 Tofind out how many people

have a particular perspective,
how many people have a
particular problem, or how
many people hold a particular
view
 Quantitative Research Approach
 Generates statistics or figures

 Using surveys and experiments

 Many people can be studied but the contact is short

 The focus is to generate extensive information

(breadth)
 Its aim is to transform reality into numeric value

 Measurement in number is central in this approach

 Findings of such approach can be generalized to a

wider population
 Example: A study that assesses access to basic

services of Addis Ababa households

Unstructured approach

 Unstructured approach, by contrast, allows

flexibility in all these aspects of the research
process
 predominantly used to explore its nature, in
other words, variation/diversity per se in a
phenomenon, issue, problem or attitude
towards an issue
 Unstructured-eg……..

 Ifyou want to research the

different perspectives of an
issue, the problems experienced
by people living in a community or
the different views people hold
towards an issue, then these are
better explored using unstructured
enquiries.
 Qualitative Research Approach
 Used to study attitudes, behavior , culture, experiences,
etc.
 Using interviews, focus group discussions, field research
 Few research participants take part but the contact lasts
longer
 The aim is to generate complete and in-depth information
 The focus is in generating meaning rather than numbers
 It transforms the reality studied into meaningful text
 However, we can not generalize the findings of qualitative
research into a wider population and
 it is difficult to compare two or more qualitative research
findings
 Example: describing the challenges of transport
infrastructure management in Addis Ababa
Others….

From the perspective of time dimension:

 Cross-sectional or one time research: In this case, the
research or data collection is confined to a single-time
period,
 Longitudinal research: in this case the research or data
collection is carried out over several time periods.
 Historical research: is a type of descriptive research
that attempts to establish facts through meaningful and
organized record of events so as to derive conclusions
concerning past events.
The purpose is to find connections between events in the
past and variables in the present.
Research Design
 Research design is the plan and structure of
investigation so conceived as to obtain answers to
research questions.
 Strategy or framework for collection & analysis of
data; Identification of subjects or participants and involves
research methodology, methods, and techniques.
 The plan is an overall scheme or program of the
research process.
 It includes an outline of what the researcher will do
starting from statement of the problem and
hypotheses formulation to the final analysis of data.
 Research Design……
 Research design starts from asking research
questions.
 Of course all questions may not be research
questions. (avoid overdone, controversial, too broad,
unfamiliar, and less important topics)
 For instance, a question whose answer is known
beforehand is not research question.
 Once a research question is clearly defined in light to
literature, the researcher has to plan for how the
actual research will be done.
Research Design …
 The how aspect of a research design has to
clearly answer questions pertaining to:
1) conceptualization and operationalization of key
concepts in the research,
2) the research method to be used and
3) the data source and research subjects to whom
conclusion is to be inferred.
 Besides, it is not uncommon for research designs
to include the expected outcomes and possible
applications or possible value addition of the
research.
Dimensions and Types of Research Designs
Purpose of research as the 1stdimension
Research has purpose of exploration, description or
explanation or a combination of them.
 Based on the “purpose of research” dimension,

there are at least three classes of research

designs:
1) exploratory,
2) descriptive and
3) explanatory.
 Change of purpose, say from exploration to
explanation, change all components of the
research process.
Method of data collection as the 2nd dimension
 Based on the level of involvement of the data
collector, data collection methods can be
orderly classified into:
 participant observation,
 unstructured interview,
 focus group discussion,
 non- participant observation, and
 mail questionnaire.
Method of data collection as the 2nd
dimension…
 The level of data collector involvement
decreases as you go on from
participant observation to mail
questionnaire or survey.
 It is important to note that a combination

of purposes of research and method of

data collection could result in new
breeds of research designs.
Control of variables as the 3rd dimension ….

 You may conduct an experiment.

Particularly in social sciences, it is very
difficult to put clear boundary on a variable
hence it is difficult to conduct experiments
and get experimental data.
 The only option you have is to observe

past data about depreciation of different

companies and relate it with their past data
about wealth.
Control of variables as the 3rd dimension ….

 Research design that plans to use

past data, instead of experimental
data, is known as ex-post design.
 In short, based on control over

variables we differentiate research

designs between experimental and
ex-post designs.
 The time dimension of the research as the 4th
dimension
 Data that involve respondents from different geographical locations as of a
single point of time are known as cross-sectional (one time) data.
 The researcher collects data from varying subjects at a single point in time
in order to study the same variables i.e ‘snapshot’.
 It does not require observation or survey across time periods.
 Cross-sectional design is used to compare different individuals with the
same characteristics. See differences among population subsets in
several categories
 Convenient: fewer touch points, affordable, quicker for conclusion,
representative sample
 Limitation: It can’t show patterns, connection and change of variables.
 Eg, a research on “measuring relative efficiency of Ethiopian banks” is cross-
sectional study because it requires observation or survey at a single point of time.
 To study the advantages of running, a researcher isn’t collecting data from a
single subject over several years to learn about the effects of running, but from
many subjects just once.
 The time dimension of the research as the 4th
dimension……
 Longitudinal design involves repeated observations of the same variables
(e.g., people) over long periods of time, often many decades.
 Data that involve a respondent in one geographical location across different
time periods are known as longitudinal data.
 It is often used in psychology, to study developmental trends across the life
span, and in sociology, to study life events throughout lifetimes or
generation.
 Eg, a research on “On the dynamics of share holders’ wealth in Awash
International Bank” is longitudinal study because it requires observation
or survey across time.
 Psychologists love using longitudinal studies to measure the impact of
various therapy practices over time, usually using a control group as a
baseline.
 In medicine- to identify and show the causes of certain diseases.
 In advertising- to identify the changes that it has produced in the
attitudes and behaviors of target audience
Continued
 B/se it studies & tracks the same people and the
differences observed in those people will not be
the result of cultural differences. Thus, it
identifies observing changes more accurate.
 Advantage: pattern, correlation, casual r/ship of
variables over time.
 Dis. adv.: takes a lot of time, attrition and is very
expensive, observation periods are pre-
determined ,biased response- this design is not
very convenient.

52
Three distinct kinds of longitudinal studies: Panel,
Cohort and Retrospective.
1. Panel: a study where the same participants are used throughout the study.
 A panel usually involves a somewhat random sample of subjects at specified
intervals over a long period, often many years.
 It collects the same data; repeated measures of the same characteristics from the
same sample at different and relatively frequent & consistent time intervals.
2. Cohort: conducted on a group of people who share a common characteristic and
event in a selected period and perform cross-section observations at intervals
through time.
 It observes subjects in a similar group based on region, age, or common
experiences such as birth or graduation)
 It is observational study in which the researcher observes a group of people for a
long period of time. The researcher keeps in touch with the members of the cohort.
Example- 1. sample of four cohorts of women: born between 1931-1936, 1956–1961,
1983–1988 and 1999–2005.
3. Retrospective: It is survey of past course of action and involves historical data
often times in comparison to updated data.
Example- looking back in time such as medical records or claims database and
compares with existing data
 Research environment as the 5th dimension

There are at least two possible ways of getting data

for your study.
•Based on the research environment dimension, we

classify research designs into field eg. by

interviewing and simulation.
 Simulation is a statistical method of generating artificial
data based up on statistical parameters such as mean
and standard deviation and the type of distribution.
Depth of research as the 6th
dimension
 The depth and breadth of research are on a constant
tradeoff.
 If a research has to increase its depth it usually gives up
some part of its breadth.
 Research projects that emphasize on depth of analysis
are usually aimed at particularization.
 Whereas, research projects that emphasize on breadth of
analysis are usually aimed at generalization.
 Qualitative research designs are usually meant for
researches that require depth instead of breadth and
quantitative research designs are commonly used in
research projects aiming at generalization.
Dimensions of Research Designs Matrix
Choices for your research design and methodology
 Research design and methodology are plans that promote systematic
management of statistical data collection. Both dictate what statistics you
need to answer your research questions. Here are the most common with
example:
 Historical Research Design - The Evolution of the Laptop Computer
 Descriptive or Survey Research Design - The Public View of American and
European Leaders
 Correlational or Prospective Research - Breastfeeding's Impact on Newborn
Development
 Causal Comparative or Ex Post Facto Research Design - Maternity
Satisfaction with their Hospital Stay
 Developmental or Time Series Research Design - Monthly Peer Counseling
and the Juvenile Delinquency
 Experimental Research Quasi Experimental Research Design - Water with
Fluoride and Dental Health
 Case and Field Research Design - Observations of Autistic Children in the
American Classroom

06/28/24 57
Suggested Further Reading
 C. R. Kothari. 2004: Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques (Second
Revised Edition). Chapter One: Research Methodology: An Introduction. New Age
International Publishers. New Delhi. ISBN (13) : 978-81-224-2488-1
 Berger, P. and Luckmann, T. (1967) The Social Construction of Reality: a Treatise
in the Sociology of Knowledge. Garden City, NY: Anchor Books.
 Bhasker, Roy (1993) The Possibility of Naturalism. Hemel Hempstead: Harvester.
 Giddens, Anthony (1974) Positivism and Sociology. London: Heinemann.
 Hughes, J.A. (1990) The Philosophy of Social Research, 2nd edn. London:
Longman.
 Ackroyd, S. and Hughes, J.A. (1981) Data Collection in Context. London:
Longman.Brewer, J.D. (2000) Ethnography. Buckingham: Open University Press.
 The A-Z of Social Research. A Dictionary of Key Social Science Research
Concepts. Edited by
 Robert L. Miller and John D. Brewer. 2003.. SAGE Publications. London Thousand
Oaks New Delhi. ISBN 0 7619 7132 7 ISBN 0 7619 7133 5 (pbk)
 THANKS
Questions/comments