CHAPTER TWO

DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS,
SIMILITUDE AND HYDRAULIC
MODEL
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
 Dimensional analysis is a method, which describes a natural
phenomenon by dimensionally correct equation among certain
variables which affect the phenomenon.
 It is a mathematical method, which is of considerable value in
problems that occur in fluid mechanics.
 In dimensional analysis, from a general understanding of fluid
phenomenon, one first predicts the physical parameters that will
influence the flow, and then by grouping these parameters in
dimension combinations, a better understanding of the flow
phenomena is made possible.
• Application of dimensional analysis:
• Developing equations –reducing number of variables in an
experiment.
• Producing dimensionless parameters – establish the principle of
model design.
•Dimension; is category that represents the physical quantity (mass, volume,
length, time, ) etc.
Generally there are two types of quantities. These are;
1. Fundamental /primary quantity; are quantities w/c are not derived &
bases for secondary quantities like;
 Mass
 Length
 Time
2. Derived/ secondary quantities; this are quantities which are expressed in
terms of fundamental quantities like;
 Force
 Volume
 Pressure etc.
•The dimension of any physical quantities can be expressed as,
 Derived dimensions these are dimensions which are expressed in terms of Fundamental dimension.
For example, velocity is defined as the distance moved per unit time and therefore its dimensions
can be derived as
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝐿
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = =൤൨
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑇

Likewise, the dimensions of other physical quantities may be obtained. Table 2.1 gives the dimensions of
various physical quantities used in mechanics in both systems.
Table 2.1: Dimensions of various physical quantities

S.No. Quantity Symbol Dimensional form

M-L-T F-L-T
1 Length L L L
2 Time T T T
3 Mass m M M
-2
4 Force F MLT F
-1
5 Velocity V LT L T -1
6 Acceleration a L T -2 L T -2
7 Area A L2 L2
8 Discharge Q L3 T -1 L3 T -1
9 Pressure P M L-1 T-2 FL-2
10 Power P ML2T-3 FLT-1
11 Density  M L-3 FT2L-4
12 Unit gravity γ ML-2 T -2 FL3
force
13 Dynamic  M L-1T-1 FTL2
viscosity
14 Kinematic  L2 T-1 L2 T-1
viscosity
15 Surface  MT-2 FL-1
Tension
16 Bulk K ML-1 T-2 FL-2
modulus of
elasticity
 Dimensional homogeneity
 A physical equation is said to be dimensionally homogeneous if
the quantities on both sides of the equation have identical
dimension.
 Or the primary dimensions on each terms of the equation are the
same the equation is said to be dimensionally homogeneous
 A dimensionally homogeneous equation is applicable to all
system of units.
 On the other hand, a dimensionally non homogeneous equation
is applicable only to the system of units for which it had derived.
Example 2

Show that the following equations are DH or not

A) 𝑝 = 𝛾ℎ
1 2ൗ 1ൗ
B) 𝑣 = 𝑁 𝑅 3𝑆 2

Eq. (A) is dimensionally homogeneous. This can be proved by substituting the dimensions of each term.

𝐹 𝐹 𝐹
൤ 2 ൨= ൤ 3 ൨. ሾ𝐿ሿ= ൤ 2 ൨
𝐿 𝐿 𝐿

On the other hand, Eq. (B) is dimensionally non-homogeneous substitute the dimensions Left hand side
𝐿
𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 = ൤ ൨
𝑇
2
𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 = ൤𝐿3 ൨. [1]

Note. The quantities which are dimensionless are represented by [1].

As the dimensions of the two sides are not the same, the equation is non-homogeneous.
Application of the principle of dimensional homogeneity;

To determine the dimensions of a physical quantity.

The dimensions of a physical quantity can be determined using the principle of dimensional
homogeneity. Let us now determine the dimensions of the kinetic energy (E) from the equation:
1
𝑘𝑒 = 2 . 𝑚𝑣 2
Substitute the dimension of the right-hand side,
𝐹. 𝑇 2 𝐿2
ሾ𝑘𝑒ሿ= ቈ ቉. ቈ 2 ቉
𝐿 𝑇

ሾ𝑘𝑒ሿ= ሾ𝐹𝐿ሿ
 Dimensional analysis, uses and methods of dimensional analysis

Dimensional analysis is a way of to condense the no of

separate variables involved in a particular type of physical
system in to a smaller no non dimensional groups of
variables.
•Dimensional analysis is the method of analysis based on the
mathematics of the dimension of quantities.
•In dimensional analysis, from a general understanding of fluid
phenomenon, one first predicts the physical parameters that will
influence the flow, and then by grouping these parameters in
dimension combinations, a better understanding of the flow
phenomena is made possible.
Uses Of dimensional analysis
 It can be used to obtain a functional relationship among the variables in terms of
non-dimensional parameters.
 Dimensional analysis reduces the number of experiments required in a particular
investigation.
 Dimensional analysis helps in obtaining a systematic form of the variables involved
in a particular fluid phenomenon.
 It gives a sound and orderly arrangement of the variables involved in the problem.
 Deriving equations expressed in terms of non- dimensional parameters to show
the significance of each parameter.

However, dimensional analysis does not give the complete

relationship. It gives only a general qualitative expression.
Investigations have to be done to obtain the complete expression.
The numerical values of the coefficients are usually obtained from
experimental investigations.
METHODS OF DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
The dimensional analysis is a power full tool in
formulating problems of physical phenomenon.
It must be solved experimentally.
The dimensional analysis accomplishes this by
formation of dimension-less groups containing
relevant variables.
There are several approaches for the dimensional
analysis. However, all the methods are absolutely
dependent on the correct identification of all the
factors, which govern the physical event being
analysed.
• The application of dimensional analysis to any
practical problem is based on the assumption that
certain variable, which affect the phenomenon are
independent variables, and all variables other
than these and the dependent variableon the
phenomenon.
• Steps in dimensional analysis
• To decide which variables enter the problem
• Formation of dimensionless groups of the
variables
• Requires thorough understanding
• Judgment and experience
• Methods of dimensional analysis
The two most commonly methods that we used for
dimensional analysis are;
 SIMILITUDE AND HYDRAULIC MODELS
 It is known that even with modern computing facilities, many
complex problems still challenge to complete theoretical
analysis.
 A combination of past experience, theory and dimensional
analysis will provide partial or complete solution to a number
of problems.
 However, there still remain many problems, which are
practical only through experimentation.
 This will be done through model studies of proposed hydraulic
structures and machines. So in this section we deal with the
laws of similarity as applied to hydraulic structures.
• In model analysis, investigations are made on a
model which is similar to the full size structure
known as proto type.
• Model testing is done to obtain useful
quantitative or quantitative information that
can be safely utilized in the design of the
prototype.
• knowledge of the principles of hydraulic
similitude is essential in proper design,
construction and operation of model.
 SIMILITUDE
Model; is a small scale replace of the actual structure or machine it is
extrapolated from the prototype.
 A model will yield useful quantitative information about the
characteristics of the prototype if it is similar to its prototype.
 Complete similarity can be obtained between the model and its
prototype if the two systems are geometrically, kinematic ally and
dynamically similar
 Models which are completely similar with their prototype are
known as true model.
 But if it is not possible to maintain geometric similarity between the
model and the prototype the model is called distorted model.
Similitude is the theory and art of predicting prototype performance
from model observation.
 TYPES OF SIMILARITY
The model & prototype should have the following similarities
(a) GEOMETRIC SIMILARITY

 It is the similarity of the shape (scale factor). It is obtained when the

solid boundaries that control the follow of fluid are geometrically
similar.
 The model is a geometric reduction of the prototype and is
accomplished by maintaining a fixed ratio of all homologous lengths
between the model and prototype.
 These physical quantities are length, area, diameter, volume, etc.
𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑒𝑙 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜:

𝐿𝑃 𝑤𝑃 𝐻𝑃
𝐿𝑟 = = =
𝐿𝑚 𝑤𝑚 𝐻𝑚

𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐:
𝐴𝑃 𝐿𝑃 𝑤𝑃
𝐴𝑟 = = ∗ = 𝐿2𝑟
𝐴𝑀 𝐿𝑚 𝑤𝑚

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜:

𝐿𝑃 𝑤𝑃 𝐻𝑃
𝑉𝑟 = ∗ ∗ = 𝐿3𝑟
𝐿𝑚 𝑤𝑚 𝐻𝑚
B KINEMATIC SIMILARITY
 It is the similarity of motion. For kinematic similarity to exist, the
streamline pattern in the model must be the same as in its
prototype.
 The ratios of kinematic quantities representing the flow
characteristics such as, time, velocity, acceleration, and discharge
must be the same at all corresponding points.
C. DYNAMIC SIMILARITY
It is the Similarity of forces involved in motion. Dynamic Similarity is attained
if the ratio of homologous forces in the model and prototype are kept
constant.

The conditions required for complete similarity are developed form the
Newton 2nd law of motion

The forces acting may be any one or a combination of several of the

following: viscous, pressure, gravity, elasticity, surface tension, inertia forces
etc.
       


F  Fv  Fg  Fs  Fp  Fe  RESULTANT   F  m. a
i

NOTE: Newton’s Law: Inertia force 𝑭𝒊 is equal and opposite of the resultant forces.

 F  p m.a p Fi p
  (1)
 F  m
m.a m Fi m

However, in practice, a mode is designed to study the effects of only a few dominant
forces. Dynamic similarity requires that the ratios of these forces be kept the same
between the model and prototype.
In problems of fluid flow, the inertia force will always exist and hence it is customary to
find out the force ratios with respect to the inertia forces, thus:
𝑰𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒂 𝒕𝒐 𝒗𝒊𝒔𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒔 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒔 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐
𝐹 𝐹
ቀ𝐹𝑖 ቁ = ቀ𝐹𝑖 ቁ (2)
𝑣 𝑚 𝑣 𝑃

𝑰𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒂 𝒕𝒐 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒔 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐

𝐹𝑖 𝐹𝑖
ቆ ቇ =ቆ ቇ (3)
𝐹𝑔 𝐹𝑔
𝑚 𝑃

𝑰𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒂 𝒕𝒐 𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒔 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐

𝐹𝑖 𝐹𝑖
൬൰ =൬൰ (4)
𝐹𝑒 𝑚 𝐹𝑒 𝑃

𝑰𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒂 𝒕𝒐 𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆 𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒔 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐

𝐹𝑖 𝐹𝑖
൬൰ =൬൰ (5)
𝐹𝑠 𝑚 𝐹𝑠 𝑃

𝑰𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒂 − 𝒕𝒐 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒔 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐

𝐹𝑖 𝐹𝑖
ቆ ቇ =ቆ ቇ (6)
𝐹𝑝 𝑚 𝐹𝑝 𝑃

The above six equations are dimensionless groups

DLG; are any arrangement of variables in which the primary
dimensions are canceled.
The type and significance of the Dimensionless Groups is discussed below:
(a) REYNOLDS NUMBER (PHENOMENON GOVERNED BY VISCOUS FORCE)
A Fluid In Motion always involves inertia forces. If the inertial forces
and viscous forces (example pipe flow) can be considered to be the
only forces that govern the motion, the ratio of these forces acting
on homologous particles in a model and its prototype is defined by
the Reynolds number.
 𝐹𝑖 (𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒)
𝑅𝑒 = =
𝐹𝑣 (𝑉𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒)

𝜌𝐿2 𝑉 2 𝜌𝐿𝑉 𝐿𝑉
𝑅𝑒 = = = ሺNon dimensional ratioሻ
𝜇𝑉𝐿 𝜇 𝜈

The Reynolds number is important when the viscous force is predominant. It is generally used to
correlate meter coefficient, pipe friction coefficient and drag coefficient, etc.

For dynamically similitude model and prototype:

𝐿𝑉 𝐿𝑉
ሺ𝑅𝑒 ሻ𝑚 = ሺ𝑅𝑒 ሻ𝑃 = ቀ ቁ =ቀ ቁ NOTE: D is taken as L for pipe flow.
𝜈 𝑚 𝜈 𝑃
(a) FROUDENUMBER: (phenomenongovernedby gravity force)

When inertial forces and gravity forces are considered to be the only
dominant forces in the fluid motion, the ratio of inertia forces
to gravity forces acting on the homologous elements of the
fluid in the model and prototype are considered as follows:

The Froude number is important in open channel flow. It is

useful in study of hydraulic jump, in design of hydraulic structures
and ships, etc.
 C .WEBER NUMBER (phenomenon governed by surface tension)
The surface tension is a measure of energy level on the surface of a liquid body. The force is of primary
importance in hydraulic engineering practice in the study of small surface waves or control of
evaporation from a large body of water, such as water storage tank / reservoir. In river and harbor
models reduction of scale often leads to appreciable viscous and capillary effects in the shallow regions
of flow. The depth of flow in such cases should be sufficiently large so that capillary effects are
negligible.

The ratio of Inertia to Surface tension forces in prototype and model is:

Fi V 2 L2 V 2
 
Fs L 
L

The square root of this dimensionless ratio is known as WEBER NUMBE (We):

V
We=

L
It is applied at the leading edge of a very thin sheet of liquid flowing over a surface.
Like:
 Capillary movement of water in solids.
 Flow of liquid at a very small depth over a surface.
 Flow over weir at very small heads.
 Spray of liquid from the exit of discharging tube resulting in
the formation of drops of liquids.

(C)MACH NUMBER (PHENOMENON GOVERNED BY ELASTIC FORCES)

The Mach number can be regarded as the ratio of inertia and elastic forces. Is
important in compressible fluid flow problems at high velocities, such as high velocity
flow in pipes or motion of high speed projectiles and missiles, also important in
 Aerodynamic testing
 Flow gases exceeding the velocity of sound.
 Water hammer problems. (Design of surge
tanks).
The ratio of Inertia forces & elastic forces in prototype and model is:

𝐹𝑖 𝜌𝐿2 𝑉 2 𝑉2
= = 𝐸ൗ
𝐹𝑒 𝐸𝐿2 𝜌

The square root of this dimensionless number is known as

Mach number (M). Thus:

V V
M  
E C


This is for fluid velocity (or velocity of the body through a stationary fluid) to that of a sound wave in the
same medium.

C is the sonic velocity (or celerity) in the given medium.

 (a) EULER NUMBER (PHENOMENON GOVERNED BY PRESSURE FORCES.)

The ratio of Inertia forces to pressure forces for both prototype and model is given by:

Fi V 2 L2 V 2
 
Fp PL2 P


The square root of this dimensionless number is known as EULER NUMBER (𝐸𝑢 ). Thus:

V V V The Euler number is important in the flow problems in

Eu   
P 2P
  2 g  P 
 
which a pressure gradient exists.
 For complete dynamic similarity to exist between the model and
the prototype and its model, all the above mentioned parameters
should be satisfied.
 It is impossible to obtain complete dynamic similarity because no
two fluids are known to have the requisite properties to satisfy all
conditions.
 Fortunately, in most engineering problems, all conditions are not
required to be satisfied because some of the forces
(a) may not act,
(b) may be insignificant,
(c) may oppose each other and thus cancel out.
 Usually 2 or 3 types of forces may be predominant. A sound
knowledge of the fluid phenomenon is essential to ascertain the
forces that are significant in a particular phenomenon
Example 5. In the model test of a spillway, the discharge and velocity of the flow over the model were
2m3/s and 1.5m/s respectively.

Calculate V and Q over the spillway if the scale is 1:36.

Solution

From dynamic similarity Frp =Frm

𝑉𝑝 𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑝 ඥ𝑔𝐿𝑝 ඥ𝐿𝑝 𝑉𝑝 ξ 30
= = 𝑉𝑚 = = = = Gravity force is dominant one
ඥ𝑔𝐿𝑝 ඥ𝑔𝐿𝑚 ඥ𝑔𝐿𝑚 ξ 𝐿𝑚 1.5 ξ1

Vp =9 m/s

𝑄𝑝 𝐴𝑉)𝑝 𝐿𝑝 2 𝑉𝑝
𝑄𝑚
= (𝐴𝑉)𝑚 = ቀ𝐿 ቁ (𝑉𝑚 ) = Qp =15552m3/s
𝑚
 TYPES OF MODELS
In general hydraulic models can be classified under two broad categories
(a)Undistorted models
(b)Distorted models
(a) Undistorted Models: - if a model is geometrically similar to its prototype, it is known as undistorted
models. i.e., the scale ratios for the corresponding linear dimension are the same.
(b) Distorted models: - if one or more terms of the models are not identical with the prototype it is
known as distorted models.

The distortion may be geometrical, or material or hydraulic quantities or a combination of

these.
 Geometrical distortion, The distortion can be either of dimensions or that of configuration.
o When different scale ratios are adopted for the longitudinal, transverse, & vertical dimensions;
then it is known as distortion of dimensions.
o It is adopted in river models where a different slope ratio for depth is adopted.
o Distortion of configuration results when the general configuration of the model doesn’t have
resemblance with its prototype. If a river model has different bed slope ratio, this is distortion of
configuration.
 Material distortion is occurred when the physical properties of
the material used in the model and prototype are different.
 Distortion of hydraulic quantities is occurred for certain
uncontrollable hydraulic quantities such as time, discharge etc.
The following are some of the reasons for adopting distorted
models:
a)To maintain accuracy in vertical measurements;
b)To maintain turbulent flow;
c)To obtain suitable bed material & its adequate movement;
d)To obtain suitable roughness condition;
To accommodate the available facilities such as space, money, water
supply & time