BIOLOGY

FOR
ENGINEERS
(BBOK407)
MODULE-I

INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY
MODULE-I
• INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY:
• The cell: the basic unit of life, Structure and functions of a cell. The
Plant Cell and animal cell, Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cell,
• Stem cells and their application.
• Biomolecules: Properties and functions of Carbohydrates, Nucleic
acids, proteins, lipids.
• Importance of special biomolecules; Enzymes (Classification
(with one example each),Properties and functions), vitamins and
hormones.
CELL STRUCTURE
 Characteristics of Cells Characteristics of Cells
“A cell is defined as the smallest, basic unit of life that
is responsible for all of life’s processes.”
• Cells provide structure and support to the body of
• Cells are the structural, functional, and biological an organism.
units of all living beings. • The cell interior is organized into different
• A cell can replicate itself independently. Hence, they individual organelles surrounded by a separate
are known as the building blocks of life. membrane.
• Each cell contains a fluid called the cytoplasm, which • The nucleus (major organelle) holds genetic
is enclosed by a membrane. Also present in the information necessary for reproduction and cell
cytoplasm are several biomolecules like proteins, growth.
nucleic acids and lipids. • Every cell has one nucleus and membrane-bound
• Moreover, cellular structures called cell organelles are organelles in the cytoplasm.
suspended in the cytoplasm. • Mitochondria, a double membrane-bound
• Robert Hooke was the first Biologist who discovered organelle is mainly responsible for the energy
cells. transactions vital for the survival of the cell.
• Lysosomes digest unwanted materials in the cell.
• Endoplasmic reticulum plays a significant role in the
internal organisation of the cell by synthesising
selective molecules and processing, directing and
sorting them to their appropriate locations.
Types of Cells
Prokaryotic Cells Eukaryotic Cells
• Prokaryotic cells have no nucleus. Instead, some • Eukaryotic cells are characterised by a true
prokaryotes such as bacteria have a region within nucleus.
the cell where the genetic material is freely • The size of the cells ranges between 10–100 µm in
suspended. This region is called the nucleoid. diameter.
• They all are single-celled microorganisms. • This broad category involves plants, fungi,
Examples include archaea, bacteria, and protozoans, and animals.
cyanobacteria.
• The plasma membrane is responsible for
• The cell size ranges from 0.1 to 0.5 µm in diameter. monitoring the transport of nutrients and
• The hereditary material can either be DNA or RNA. electrolytes in and out of the cells. It is also
• Prokaryotes generally reproduce by binary fission, responsible for cell to cell communication.
a form of asexual reproduction. They are also • They reproduce sexually as well as asexually.
known to use conjugation – which is often seen as • There are some contrasting features between plant
the prokaryotic equivalent to sexual reproduction. and animal cells. For eg., the plant cell contains
chloroplast, central vacuoles, and other plastids,
whereas the animal cells do not.
 Cell Wall

Parts of the Cell

• The cell wall is the most prominent part of the plant’s cell
structure. It is made up of cellulose, hemicellulose and
pectin.
• The cell wall is present exclusively in plant cells. It
protects the plasma membrane and other cellular
Cell Membrane
components. The cell wall is also the outermost layer of
• The cell membrane supports and protects the cell. It plant cells.
controls the movement of substances in and out of the
cells. It separates the cell from the external environment. • It is a rigid and stiff structure surrounding the cell
The cell membrane is present in all the cells. membrane.
• The cell membrane is the outer covering of a cell within • It provides shape and support to the cells and protects
which all other organelles, such as the cytoplasm and them from mechanical shocks and injuries.
nucleus, are enclosed. It is also referred to as the plasma
membrane. Cytoplasm
• By structure, it is a porous membrane (with pores) which • The cytoplasm is a thick, clear, jelly-like substance present
permits the movement of selective substances in and out inside the cell membrane.
of the cell. Besides this, the cell membrane also protects
• Most of the chemical reactions within a cell take place in
the cellular component from damage and leakage.
this cytoplasm.
• It forms the wall-like structure between two cells as well
as between the cell and its surroundings. • The cell organelles such as endoplasmic reticulum,
• Plants are immobile, so their cell structures are well- vacuoles, mitochondria, ribosomes, are suspended in this
adapted to protect them from external factors. The cell cytoplasm.
wall helps to reinforce this function.
Parts of the Cell
• Nucleus
• The nucleus contains the hereditary material of
the cell, the DNA.
• It sends signals to the cells to grow, mature, divide
and die.
• The nucleus is surrounded by the nuclear
envelope that separates the DNA from the rest of
the cell.
• The nucleus protects the DNA and is an integral
component of a plant’s cell structure.
• Cell Organelles
• Cells are composed of various cell organelles that
perform certain specific functions to carry out
life’s processes. The different cell organelles, along
with its principal functions, are as follows:
 Cell Organelles and their Functions
Nucleolus
The nucleolus is the site of ribosome synthesis. Also, it is involved in controlling cellular activities and cellular
reproduction.
Nuclear membrane
The nuclear membrane protects the nucleus by forming a boundary between the nucleus and other cell organelles.
Chromosomes
Chromosomes play a crucial role in determining the sex of an individual. Each human cells contain 23 pairs of
chromosomes.
Endoplasmic reticulum

The endoplasmic reticulum is involved in the transportation of substances throughout the cell. It plays a primary role
in the metabolism of carbohydrates, synthesis of lipids, steroids and proteins.

Golgi Bodies
Golgi bodies are called the cell’s post office as it is involved in the transportation of materials within the cell.
Ribosome
Ribosomes are the protein synthesizers of the cell.
Mitochondria
The mitochondrion is called “the powerhouse of the cell.” It is called so because it produces ATP – the cell’s energy
currency.
Lysosomes
Lysosomes protect the cell by engulfing the foreign bodies entering the cell and help in cell renewal. Therefore, they
are known as the cell’s suicide bags.
Chloroplast
Chloroplasts are the primary organelles for photosynthesis. It contains the pigment called chlorophyll.
Vacuoles
Vacuoles store food, water, and other waste materials in the cell.
Functions of the cell
• Provides Support and Structure • Energy Production
All the organisms are made up of cells. They form the structural
basis of all the organisms. The cell wall and the cell membrane are Cells require energy to carry out various chemical processes.
the main components that function to provide support and This energy is produced by the cells through a process
structure to the organism. For eg., the skin is made up of a large called photosynthesis in plants and respiration in animals.
number of cells. Xylem present in the vascular plants is made of
cells that provide structural support to the plants.
• Aids in Reproduction
• Facilitate Growth Mitosis A cell aids in reproduction through the processes called
In the process of mitosis, the parent cell divides into the daughter mitosis and meiosis. Mitosis is termed as the asexual
cells. Thus, the cells multiply and facilitate the growth in an reproduction where the parent cell divides to form daughter
organism. cells. Meiosis causes the daughter cells to be genetically
• Allows Transport of Substances different from the parent cells.
Various nutrients are imported by the cells to carry out various Thus, we can understand why cells are known as the
chemical processes going on inside the cells. The waste produced
by the chemical processes is eliminated from the cells by active structural and functional unit of life. This is because they are
and passive transport. Small molecules such as oxygen, carbon responsible for providing structure to the organisms and
dioxide, and ethanol diffuse across the cell membrane along the perform several functions necessary for carrying out life’s
concentration gradient. This is known as passive transport. The processes.
larger molecules diffuse across the cell membrane through active
transport where the cells require a lot of energy to transport the
substances.
STEM CELLS
• Stem cells are undifferentiated cells with the remarkable
ability to differentiate into specialized cell types and self-
renew to produce more stem cells. They play a crucial role in
development, tissue repair, and maintenance of homeostasis
in the body.
TYPES OF STEM CELLS
Types of Stem Cells: Adult Stem Cells (also known as Somatic or Tissue-
Specific Stem Cells):
 Embryonic Stem Cells (ESCs): • Found in various tissues and organs throughout
the body, such as bone marrow, adipose tissue,
 Adult Stem Cells (also known as Somatic or and the brain.
Tissue-Specific Stem Cells): • Multipotent or sometimes unipotent, meaning
they can differentiate into a limited number of cell
 Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells (iPSCs ) types related to their tissue of origin.
• Responsible for tissue repair and regeneration in
Embryonic Stem Cells (ESCs): response to injury or normal wear and tear.
• Derived from the inner cell mass of early-
Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells (iPSCs):
stage embryos (blastocysts).
• Generated by reprogramming adult cells (e.g., skin
• Pluripotent, meaning they can differentiate cells) to revert to a pluripotent state similar to
into any cell type in the body. embryonic stem cells.
• Used in research to study development, • Offer the potential to generate patient-specific
disease modeling, and regenerative stem cell lines for personalized medicine, disease
medicine. modeling, and drug screening.
Applications of Stem Cells

Regenerative Medicine: • Tissue Engineering and Organ Transplantation:

• Stem cells hold immense promise for treating a • Stem cells are used in combination with
wide range of diseases and injuries by replacing biomaterials and scaffolds to create artificial
damaged or dysfunctional tissues and organs. tissues and organs for transplantation.
• Therapeutic applications include bone and • Tissue-engineered constructs can be
cartilage repair, heart regeneration, spinal cord tailored to match patient-specific
injury repair, and treatment of
requirements, reducing the risk of rejection
neurodegenerative diseases.
and the need for immunosuppressive drugs.
Disease Modeling and Drug Discovery:
• Cell-Based Therapies for Cancer:
• Pluripotent stem cells, such as ESCs and iPSCs,
can be differentiated into specific cell types • Cancer stem cells, a small population of cells
affected by diseases, allowing researchers to within tumors with stem cell-like properties,
study disease mechanisms and test potential are being targeted for the development of
therapies in vitro. novel cancer therapies aimed at eliminating
• These models provide valuable insights into the root cause of tumor growth and
disease progression, drug responses, and metastasis.
personalized treatment strategies.
Applications of Stem Cells

• Stem Cell Banking and Regenerative Banking:

• Private and public stem cell banks store and
preserve stem cell samples for future
therapeutic use or research purposes.
• Regenerative banking involves collecting and
storing various biological materials (e.g., cord
blood, dental pulp, adipose tissue) rich in
stem cells for potential regenerative medicine
applications.
Carbohydrates:

Carbohydrates:
Carbohydrates are a class of
organic compounds that play a
crucial role in biology and are an
important source of energy for
living organisms. They are
composed of carbon (C), hydrogen
(H), and oxygen (O) atoms and are
classified based on their molecular
structure and function. General
formula is Cn(H2O)n.
Ring structural formula of glucose, fructose, and galactose

Monosaccharides
• These are the simplest form of
carbohydrates and include
glucose and fructose. They are
easily soluble in water and serve
as the primary source of energy
for the body.
 Disaccharides

• These are formed by the

condensation of two
monosaccharides and include
sucrose, lactose, and
maltose. They are commonly
found in sugar and are broken
down into monosaccharides
during digestion.
Polysaccharides

• These are long chains of

monosaccharides linked together. They
serve as storage molecules for energy,
such as glycogen in animals and starch in
plants, and also provide structure and
support, such as cellulose in plant cell
walls. In addition to their role as energy
sources, carbohydrates also play
important roles in cellular processes,
such as cellular signaling and recognition,
and in regulating gene expression.
Industrial Applications of Carbohydrates

Cellulose-Based Water Filters

• Cellulose-based water filters are filters made from cellulose, a
carbohydrate polymer found in plant cell walls. They are used
to remove impurities and contaminants from water and are an
alternative to traditional synthetic polymer filters. The high
• Food and Beverage: mechanical strength and hydrophilic properties of cellulose
make it an ideal material for water filtration. Cellulose filters
• Pharmaceuticals: can effectively remove particles, pathogens, and other
contaminants from water, making it safer and more potable.
• Cosmetics: Cellulose-based water filters are widely used in both developed
and developing countries for household, industrial, and
• Biotechnology: agricultural applications. They are also an environmentally
• Research: friendly alternative to traditional filters, as they are
biodegradable and can be produced from renewable resources.
Properties of cellulose based water filter

• High Porosity: • Importance of cellulose based

• Biodegradability: water filters
• Cost-effective: • Safe and clean water:
• Renewable resource: • Sustainability:
• Good mechanical strength: • Affordability:
• Chemical resistance: • Versatility:
• Large surface area: • Alternative to synthetic filters: