FEDRAL UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE,

ABEOKUTA, NIGERIA
CHM 104- Introduction to Inorganic Chemistry, Module 5B- Introduction to
Nuclear Chemistry

1
Nuclear Chemistry
Nuclear chemistry is the study of changes that occur in atomic nucleus.

2
Atomic Structure

3
Nuclear Binding Energy
Mass of a nucleus is slightly less than sum of masses of proton and
neutrons. For example, helium nucleus contains two protons and two
neutrons. Mass of helium nucleus, atomic mass unit (amu) is 4.0017
whereas individual masses of the isolated proton and neutron are
1.0073 and 1.0087 amu. 2 x1.0073 + 2x1.0087) = 4.0320amu.
Difference in the mass is 0.0303amu. This difference is called mass
defect and it is transformed into BINDING ENERGY. The binding
energy is therefore defined as energy required to separate a nucleus
into individual nucleons. Einstein explains mass energy relation as
stated in the equation E = mc2 .
Where E=energy released (in joules) m = mass
loss (in Kg) c=velocity of light ( = 3 x 108 ms-1 )
proton + neutron =nucleons. Therefore, mass number = nucleon
number
Nuclide= any atomic species where the proton number and nucleon
number are specified

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Nuclear Stability
Origin of forces that are responsible for nuclear stability is still
under study. Nuclear forces acts over incredibly short distances.
Elements with mass number around 60 are most stable as
observed from a graph.
Elements with nuclei heavier than this split to form lighter or
more stable nuclei that release energy (fission). Elements lighter
than 60 combine if repulsion between nuclear charges is
overcome to form heavier nuclei with energy released (fusion).

Radioactivity:
Radioactivity is a spontaneous emission of radiation by an
element or spontaneous disintegration of nucleus of an atom.
Such element is called a Radioactive element. During this
disintegration, alpha (α), beta (β) and gamma (γ) rays are
emitted. When an element undergoes radioactivity, it is said to
undergo nuclear transformation.
Here, the Parent nucleus → Daughter nucleus+ emission.
This process is called transmutation of an atom.

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Alpha particles(α)
These are fast moving streams of positively charged nuclei of
helium, 4 2He.
Properties
Has a penetrating power
It can be easily absorbed by matter.
they exert strong ionizing effect during collision
They are positively charged and fairly heavy, hence deflected
slightly towards a negative plate in an electrostatic filed.

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An element that undergoes α -decay or emits α-radiation has
equation like:

A XZ → A-4
YZ-2 + 4
He 2
Parent daughter emission

Example
92U → 90Th + 2He
238 234 4

Most of the radioactive elements with atomic number greater

than 83 bismuth) undergoes alpha decay. Examples of the
isotopes are radium-226, plutonium-238, polonium218 and
radon-220.
Beta particles (β)
These are very fast moving streams of electrons 0-1e which are
negatively charged.
Properties
1. It has a relatively small mass.
2. It is markedly deflected towards a positive plate in an
electrostatic field.
3. It is more penetrating than α-ray.

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When an element undergoes β-decay, it becomes

A XZ → A
Y
Z+1 + 0
e -1
Parent daughter emission

Example
82Pb → 83Bi + -1e
207 207 0

Elements with atomic number less than 83 do not undergoes

alpha decay, instead their isotopes emit beta radiation.
Examples, carbon-14, strontium-90 and iodine-131.

Gamma particles (γ)

These are electromagnetic waves similar to visible light and x-
rays with short wavelength (10-12 metre).
Properties
It is the most penetrating type of radiation, e.g. it can penetrate
several centimeters of lead.
1. It is electrically neutral, therefore not deflected by magnetic
or electric field.
2. When an atom emits gamma rays, there is no change in
atomic number or mass.
3. It can be diffracted by lattice of a crystal 8
Chemical Reactions and Nuclear Reactions
Electrons are redistributed either by transfer from one atom to
another or by sharing between atoms during chemical reactions.
While during a nuclear reactions one element may be converted
by radioactive decay or by atomic fission or fusion. Chemical
reactions involve the outer parts of atoms-electrons while
nuclear reactions involve the nucleus- the protons and neutrons.
Energy changes in nuclear reactions are usually greater than
those in chemical reactions.
Natural Radioactivity
Natural radioactivity is due to uncontrolled and spontaneous
disintegration of unstable nuclei which is accompanied by
evolution of a large quantity of heat. The decay of a radioactive
element is a random process which is not influenced by external
factors such as temperature changes.

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Artificial Radioactivity
Artificial radioactivity is carried out by bombarding various
elements with fast moving atomic particles. Examples of fast
moving atomic particles are neutrons which are very effective
and reactive, protons, deuterons and α-particles which yields
new elements and energy is released in the process.
Half-life
Half-life is a measure of the rate of disintegration of an element.
It can also be defined as the time taken for half of the total
number of atoms in a given sample of the element to decay. It
can be defined as the time taken for reaction to undergo half
completion.

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Nuclear fusion
Nuclear fusion is a process where two or more light nuclei
unite to form a heavier nucleus that release energy and
radiation. Example is hydrogen fusion bomb

2
1 D + 3
1 T → 4
2 He + 1
0 n + energy

Nuclear fission
Nuclear fission is a process by which a heavy nucleus is split
into 2 or more lighter nuclei that release energy and radiation.
Example

235
U + 92
1
0n → 141
56Ba + 9236Kr + 310n
Nuclear reactor
This uses fission reactions to produce energy. Nuclear fission is
caused by bombarding uranium-235 atoms with neutrons
traveling at moderate speed. In nuclear reactors, neutrons are
made to bombard parent atoms, hence producing more energy
and more neutrons establishing a chain reaction. Nuclear
reactors are useful in synthesis of new elements and in the
formation of radioisotopes of common elements.

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Applications of Radioactivity and Radioisotopes: Treatment of
cancer by destroying cancerous tissue in preference to healthy
tissue. Studying metabolic pathways in which they are used to
track the path of elements through the body. For example,
radioactive iodine-131 given to patient with defective thyroids
to enable doctors to follow the iodine path through the body. Its
half-life is 8days.
Sterilization: They are used to sterilize surgical equipment.
Thickness gauges and instruments monitor: They are used to
monitor underground leakages in pipes; to measure engine
wear; to monitor thickness of metal foil, paper, plastic.
Archeological and geological uses in which they are used to
calculate the age of plants and animal remains. For example
carbon -14 radioisotope. They are also used in structural
analysis.

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 Equations

1. 207
82 Pb X  e
?
83
0
1

2. Al  n Y  Z
27
13
1
0
24
?
4
2

3. N  Z  A B
14
?
4
2
17
8
?
1

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1. Pb Bi  e
207
82
207
83
0
1

2. Al  n Na  He
27
13
1
0
24
11
4
2

3. N  He O  H
14
7
4
2
17
8
1
1

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a. Pb undergoes β-decay
207

b. Uranium-238 undergoes α-decay

a. Pb Bi  e
207
82
207
83
0
1

b. U  Th  He
238
92
234
90
4
2

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a. U  n Mo  ? 2 n
235
92
1
0
103
42
1
0

b. U  n Cs  ? 2 n
235
92
1
0
141
55
1
0

c. U  n Kr  ? 2 n
235
92
1
0
92
36
1
0

d . O  ? C  He
16
8
13
6
4
2

e. Al  ? Mg  He
27
13
24
12
4
2

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a. U  n Mo Sn  2 n
235
92
1
0
103
42
131
50
1
0

b. U  n Cs  Rb  2 n
235
92
1
0
141
55
93
37
1
0

c. U  n Kr  Ba  2 n
235
92
1
0
92
36
142
56
1
0

d . O  n C  He
16
8
1
0
13
6
4
2

e. Al  H  Mg  He
27
13
1
1
24
12
4
2

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Calculations
The rate of element decay is directly proportional to the number
of atoms according to exponential law. The rate of decay
decreases with time.
A → products
Rate = k[N]
dN /dt α N
dN /dt = kN eqn 1
N = number of radioactive atoms
t = time, k= First order rate constant.
dN/N = kdt
integrate eqn 1
lnN – lnNo = -kdt eqn 2
ln = loge
N= number of nuclides at time t
No= number of nuclides at time t = 0
ln(No/N) = kt, No/N = e-kt eqn 3

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 Change the Napierian log to ordinary log,
In =2.303Log10
2.303log10(N/No) = kt = λt eqn 4
Since t½ is time needed for original element to reduce to half,
No = 2N, 1/2No = N
eqn 4 becomes
2.303log10(2N/N) = kt1/2
0.6932 = kt1/2
t1/2 = 0.6932/k = 0.6932/λ
K is mostly represented as λ which is a radioactive decay
constant,
Examples
A radioactive element has halflife of 3465s, how long will it
take the element to decay to 10%
Solution:
λ =0.693/t½, t ½ = 3465s
λ=0.693/ 3465
=2x10-4s-1
In(No/N)= λt
If No=100 N=10(10% of No)
λt = In(No/N)) 19
t= In(N /N)/λ = 2.303log (N /N)/λ = 11515s
How long will it take a radioactive element with a rate constant
of 4.0x10-4s-1 to decay to 0.10g from 0.50g ?
Solution;

In(No/N)= λ t
N=0.10g No=0.50g λ = 4.0x10-4s-1
t=In5/ 4.0x10-4 = 2.303log5/ 4.0x10-4 =4024s
Calculate the energy released when 0.08g of mass is lost in a
nuclear reactor. Give your answer in Joules
Solution
E=mc2
=(0.08x 10-3)kg x (3.0x 108)2ms-1=
=7.2 x 1012J

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