Summary

 Summary is an overview of a text.

 The main idea is given, but details, examples, and formalities are left out.

 It is a restatement of someone else’s word in your own words.

How to summarize
 Read the original passage very carefully and highlight the main points as you read.

 Reread the text and make notes of the main points, leaving out examples,
evidences etc.

 Without the text, rewrite your notes in your own words;

 restate the main idea at the beginning plus all major points.
 Conclusion

 It is the wrap-up (ending, finishing) of the entire essay

 It sums up the points and evidences provided to support the thesis statement

It consists of three elements:

1. Restated thesis: At the start of the conclusion, the thesis is restated in words different from those

in the introduction.

2. Summary of main ideas: The main ideas from each of the body paragraphs are summarized as a

reminder to the reader.

3. Final thought: The writer ends the essay by presenting a final thought on the topic for example,

by stating an opinion, a solution, or a prediction.

 It should leave a strong impression and encourage the reader to think further about the topic.
 1. Types of Conclusion:
1. Embedded Conclusion

In a narrative essay that tells a personal story in chronological order, the conclusion
can be the last paragraph of the essay.

In this case, the last part of such papers does not summarize the narrative writing.

Besides, it does not restate the thesis statement.

 For example, it can be used when someone narrates about his or her experience in
learning a new language. Hence, it (the conclusion) must state his or her current
situation in using the new dialect.

 This conclusion should not be reconnected to the introduction or other body

paragraphs.
 2. Retrospective Conclusion

For any essay that uses chronology or traces an historic movement,

you may want to consider the retrospective conclusion.

Basically, a retrospective conclusion should provide new insights that

are resulted from historical events under consideration.

Hence, retrospective conclusions are informative and seek to give

meaning to past events.
 3. Reflective Conclusion Sample

It is applicable in a persuasive essay.

It allows a writer to consider a broader scope of an essay.

In this case, it contains different themes, lessons, & insights that emerge from written
essays.

Besides, reflective paragraphs intend to convince readers that the arguments presented
in the essay are binding and accurate.

Thus, a reflective form of a conclusion aims to inform and influence readers to accept
the facts presented in a persuasive essay.
 4. Projective Concluding Paragraph

 It is suitable for a research paper or expository essay.

It focuses on future outcomes of circumstances described in an essay. The
conclusion can address negative or positive results from a situation.

 Besides, it provides recommendations.

Moreover, such a conclusion can state the need for further research.

Thus, it provides possible suggestions or solutions to an existing problem.

 2. Active and passive voices

In the active voice, the subject performs the action,

in the passive voice, the subject receives the action.

In passive sentences, the doer of the action is either unknown or irrelevant.

1.1. Rules: There are some rules for changing active voice to passive:

Note: Only transitive verbs can be changed to passive voice.

1. The object of the active sentence will become the subject of the passive sentence.

E.g. Active = Kemal killed the dog

Passive = The dog was killed by Kemal.

2. The main verb must be changed to the past participle form.

In short, the form of the passive sentence is verb to be + past

participle of the main verb.

E.g. Actie: The teacher punishes the students.

Passive: The students are punished by the teacher.

3. According to the tense of the verb, the suitable be form (be, being,
been, is, am, are, was, were) must be used.
 Passive construction in different tenses

A. Simple present: The passive sentences introduce is/am for singular subjects and are for plural.
E.g. Active = Kaleb opens the door. Passive = The door is opened by Kaleb.
B. Present continuous: The passive sentence introduces being.
E.g. Active: They are repairing the bridges. Passive = The bridges are being repaired by them.
C. Simple past: The passive sentence introduces was for singular subject and were for plural sub.
E.g. Active: Shakespeare wrote a lot of books.
Passive: A lot of books were written by Shakespeare.
D. Past continuous tense: The passive introduces being.
E.g. Active: Two horses were pulling the farmer’s wagon.
Passive: The farmer’s wagon was being pulled by two horses.
E. Present perfect tense: The passive sentence introduces been.
E.g. Active: Rediet has taught a lot of students.
Passive: A lot of students have been taught by Rediet.
 Cont.
F. Past perfect tense: The passive introduces been.
E.g. Active: Henock had opened the door. Passive: The door had been opened by Henock.
G. Future tense: The future introduces be.
E.g. Active: Mulu will open the door. Passive: The door will be opened by Mulu.
Sometimes the subject of the verb is omitted because the attention is not paid to the agent
who does the action, but to the action itself.
In such cases, the agent of the action is either a well-known person or unidentified.
E.g. The window was broken. (By somebody)
-The plane was hijacked yesterday. (By some group)
2.4. Verbs with two objects (transitive verbs): If the active sentences have two objects (direct
and indirect), it can be changed to the passive by taking any object as a subject.
E.g. Active: He told me a story. Passive:
1. A story was told to me. Or, 2. I was told a story.
 2.5. Questions in passive

There are three stages to change active questions into passive. These are:
Stage 1. Turn the question into a statement Stage 2. Make the statement passive.

Stage 3. Now turn the passive sentence back to question.

E.g. 1. Will he learn English? (Active q,n) E.g. 2. Did he do it? (Active question)
A: He will learn English. A: He did it.
B: English will be learnt. B: It was done by him.
C: Will English be learnt? (Passive q.n.) C: Was it done by him? (Passive q.n)
2.6. Imperatives in passive
Various ideas like commands/orders/requests may be expressed in passive voice.
Rule: You are asked/requested/begged/ordered/advised + to + verb.
E.g. Active = Shut the door. Passive = You are ordered to shut the door.
Active = Don’t wait for me. Passive = You are told not to wait for me.
 3. Structures to talk about the future

1. Simple present: when we talk about timetables, and schedules.

E.g. -She has her driving test next week, does she?
-What time does their flight to Seoul leave?
Used for something scheduled, which always occurs at the same time.
E.g. My plane leaves tomorrow at 5 pm. (it always leaves at 5 pm on Mondays).
2. Present continuous: We use it to express personal arrangements and fixed plans.
It refers to fixed future events that have been planned at an exact time or place.
It shows that we have already decided something and we have already made a plan or
arrangements:
E.g.: -I am coming to your home tonight (you know that and a meal is waiting for me)
-She is calling the school tomorrow morning. (She has made plans to call the school
tomorrow mor.g.
 3. Simple future tense:
 It is used when we decide to do something at the time of speaking.
 Especially when: Offering to do something, agreeing to do something, promising to do
something and asking somebody to do something.
Eg. -“well,” Alex said eventually, “I will come.” -Oh! I have left the door open, I will go and shut
it.
-I will not tell anyone what happened. I promise.
 In these examples, we had no firm plan before speaking. The decision is made at the time of
speaking.
 We often use will/shall to predict the future to say what we think/guess or calculate will happen.
E.g -It will rain tomorrow. -People won't go to Jupiter before the 22nd century.
 We often use the Future Simple tense with the verb to think before it:
-I think I'll go to the gym tomorrow. -I think I will have a holiday next year.
 To express Future facts: E.g. -Wendy will be 30 next week.
-The sun will not set before 7:00 tomorrow evening.
 4. Be + going to + infinitive:
We use “be going to” to talk about future plans and intentions.
Usually the decision about the future plans has already been made, but may not be fully
arranged.
E.g. She is going to call the school later.
She has decided to call the school, but she has not planned an exact time to call.
-They are going to purchase a new house.
They have decided to purchase a new house sometime in the future.
We can also use this form to express certainty about the future which is based on
evidence now.
E.g. The man can’t see where he is going. There is a hole in front of him. He is going to fall in
to the hole.
-Look at that black cloud! It is going to rain.
 5. The future continuous tense:

It expresses future actions having an on-going nature-that is expected to start in the future
and continue for a period of time in future.
E.g. -When I get home, my children will be playing.
-Good luck with the exam. We will be thinking of you.
For future events that are planned.
E.g. -I will be staying till Sunday. -She will be mitting us next week.

6. The future perfect tense:

It indicates that an action will have been completed (finished) at some point in the future.

E.g. By the time you arrive, we will have finished the meal and the speeches.

(Note: "By the time you arrive" identifies the point in the future.)

- I will have read every magazine in the waiting room before I see the dentist.

(Note: The clause "before I see the dentist" identifies the point in the future.)
 7. The future perfect continuous tense:

It expresses longer actions or states extending up to some specific event or

time in the future.

The future perfect progressive emphasizes the duration of an activity that will
be in progress before another time or event in the future.

E.g. Ram starts waiting at 9am. I am late and cannot arrive before 10am. Ram will
have been waiting for an hour by the time I meet him. (negative, tense,
others…)
 4. Modal verbs

are auxiliary verbs that provide additional & specific meaning to the main verb.

Help to express the mood or attitude of the speaker and convey ideas about:
possibility, probability, necessity, obligation, advisability, and permission.

1. Modal Verbs of Obligation

I. Must and have to: To express firm/strong obligation.

A. Must: expresses a strong obligation. (the obligation comes from the speaker)

E.g. I must do my homework every night. -I must stop smoking!

Negative: mustn't, Past: Had to + verb, Future: will have to + v1 (consider them)
B. Have to:

It can be used to talk about rules and regulations. (the obligation doesn’t come
from the speaker).

E.g. In England you have to pay tax. - We have to check everyone’s ID.

Negative: don’t have to, past: had to +verb, Future: will have to + v1

II. Should, out to & need to: To express moral obligation/necessity.

E.g. You should stop smoking.

I think you have got covid…you need to get tested at once.

 2. Modal verbs of Possibility & certainty:

A. May, might & could

Are used to say that something is possible or that it is quite likely.

We can use them for the present, the future & the past.

E.g. -I may go to Adama tomorrow. (Perhaps a 50% chance)

-Abera might/could go with us. (Perhaps a 30% chance)

The negative forms are may not, might not/mightn’t, & could not/couldn’t.

Past: may, might, could + have + v3

E.g. She might have gone home.

 B. Must and can’t

We use must when we realize that something is certainly true.

E.g. -Andrew is not here. He must be working in the library.

We use can’t when we realize that something is impossible.

E.g. -We haven’t walked far. You can’t be tired.

Past: can’t, must + have + v3

E.g. You must have been tired after running so far.

 3. Modal verbs of ability:

A. Can & be able to

We use can & be able to to express present & future ability.

E.g. -I can/am able to run 1500 meters in 5 minutes.

-I think I will be able to speak English in a few months.

Can is more preferable/usual than be able to, but the same.

Can, not be able to is used with verbs of perception.

But in some structures we always use be able to, not can.

-to-infinitive: It is nice to be able to go to the opera. (not to can go)

-After a modal verb: Meron might be able to help us. (not might can help us)
Present perfect: I have been able to get some work done. (not have been can get)

For the future: use can if we are deciding now what to do in the future.

E.g. -I can see you tomorrow morning for half an hour.

In other cases, we use “will be able to” to express that something will be
possible in the future.

E.g. I think I will be able to speak English quite well in a few months.

B. Could and was/were able to:

 use could/couldn’t, was/were able to, wasn’t/weren’t able to, to describe ability

in the past. E.g. -She could read when she was four.
-My grandfather could/was able to speak five languages.
 Cont….

Note: 1. We use could with verbs of perception, not was/were able to.

E.g. -When we went in to the house, we could smell burning.

2. Like can, could is more preferable/usual than was/were able to for past ability.

4. Modals expressing permission:

A. Can: We use can to ask for and give permission.

E.g. Can I make a suggestion? -You can use my car if you want.

B. Could: To ask for permission only E.g. Could I ask you something?

C. May: Is the more formal way to ask for and give permission.

E.g. May I see your passport please?

-These pages may be photocopied for classroom use.

 5. Modals of polite request
Use can & will in less formal situations and would & could in more formal situations.

E.g. Would you open the window? -Could you pass me the potatoes?

-Will you lend me some money? -Can I borrow your pen?

Do not use “may” in a polite question when “you” is the subject.

6. Modals expressing advice: (should, ought to, had better)

To say that something is advisable/necessary, we use:

A. Should and ought to: (in my opinion it is advisable, but there is some choice).
E.g. You should see a doctor. -We ought to vote in the next election.

B. Had better: Is stronger than the two, even it is warning.

E.g: You had better see a doctor. (that is my urgent advice, there may be a
consequence if you ignore it)

C. Have to, Have got to (less formal) and must. (in my opinion, you have no
choice)

-You have to/must see a doctor. (That is the strongest advice I can give you. Do not
ignore it.)
 5. Direct and Reported speeches

It refers to what a person says without necessarily saying the speaker’s exact words.

General guidelines on tense usage in reported speech

1. If the reporting verbs (said, told, asked etc.) are in the past, the verbs in the noun
clause will move one step in the past.

E.g. Direct: He said, “I visited America.”

Reported: He said that he had visited America.

2. If the reported sentence deals with a general truth, no tense change is necessary.

E.g. Direct: She said, “The world is round.”

Reported: She said that the world is round.

3. When the reporting verb is simple present, present perfect, or future, the verb in the

noun clause is not changed.

E.g. Quoted speech Reported speech

-She says, “I will help you.” She said she will help me.

-“I will help you,” she has said. She has said she will help me.

-She will say, ‘I will help you.” She will say she will help me.

• Modal Verbs Change:

Will: He said, “Ravi will speak on the importance of English.” (would)

• Can: He said, “I can swim under water for two minutes.” (could)
• Must: Smriti said, “ The books must be returned to the library coordinator” (had
to)

• Shall: He said, “We shall meet for lunch sometime soon.” (should)

• May: Bonsa said, “I may arrive later.” (maight)

Note: Would, should, ought to, had better, might, used to & could do not
change.
E.g. Direct: “I had better study hard,” he said.
Reported: He said that he had better study hard.
Direct: He said, “I should exercise everyday.”
Reported: He said that he should exercise everyday.
 Changes necessary: 1. Tense Changes

There will be tense changes in reported speech if the introductory verb is in the past.

1. Simple Present: Abel said, “I want a sandwich.”

2. Present continuous: She said, “I am watching TV.”

3. Present perfect: “I have helped him,” she said.

4. Present perfect continuous: He said, “I have been waiting for ages.”

5. Simple past: “I went to Adama,” he said.

6. Past Continuous: Marta said, “I was reading an article on the importance of life skills.”
 Cont.…
7. Past Perfect: Ali said, “The play had started when I reached the theatre.”

8. Simple Future: They said, “We will help our parents.”

9. Future Continuous: She said, “I will be going to Canada.”

2. Pronoun Changes:

In reported speech, pronouns & possessive adjectives should be changed to show a change
in speakers.

Direct Indirect

I, me, my, mine he/she, his, her, hers, him

we, us, our, ours they, them, their, theirs

you, your, yours they, them, their, theirs

 Cont.…
Note: The third person pronouns should not be changed.

Object: = he, she, they; Object: = him, her, them; Possessive: his, her, hers

Pronouns doesn’t change when the speaker is reporting his own words.

E.g. I said, “I like my new apartment.” -I said that I liked my new apartment.

3. Adverbs and demonstrative adjectives in reported speech

They must be changed when the verb of the tense is changed.

Direct Reported Direct Reported

Now……………………...then Tonight………………………….that night

This……………………....that Last week/month/year…………the previous

week/month/year
These………………….…..those Tomorrow…………….....the following day
Here……………………….there Yesterday……………….the day before
Today……………………..that day
Questions in Reported speech

Yes/no questions: If the questions require “yes” or “no” as an answer in the

direct questions, use “if” or “whether” as a connector in the indirect question.

E.g. Direct: “Is Meron your sister?” he asked me.

Reported: He asked me if (whether) Meron was my sister.

Direct: “Has Tigist many friends?” She wanted to know.

Reported: She wanted to know that if (whether) Tigist had many friends.
2. WH- questions:

If the direct question begins with a question word (when, where, who, how, etc.)
the question word should be used as a connector in the indirect question.

E.g. Direct: “Where did you see this film?” She asked me.

Reported: She asked me where I had seen that film.

Direct: -She asked me: “What do you want?”

Reported: She asked me what I wanted.

 4. Relative clauses

It tells us which/which kind of person or thing we talk about.

It is one way of joining/relating different sentences together.

E.g. -He reads magazines (sce-1). -The magazines have high literary quality (sce-2).

-He reads magazines which have high literary quality. (sentence joined by r.c).

A. Defining/identifying relative clauses

 Is used to identify, or make clear what the sentence is about.

E.g. -The girl won the prize. She is my nice. -The girl who won the prize is my nice.
We can replace which or who with that in a defining relative clause.

Commas are not used in defining relative clauses.

 Omitting “who, which or that”

DRC can be used with and without who/which/that.

We can omit RPS (who/which/that) when they are used as an object, not subject.
E.g. -The book which/that I read was good.

- The book I read was good. (Which/that is omitted).

-I like the dress which/that you were wearing yesterday.

-I like the dress you were wearing yesterday. (Which/that is omitted)

Omission is only possible in DRC where the relative pronouns are used as an
object.

E.g. The girl who won the race was happy. (Omission is never allowed here)
 cont..

C. Reduced relative clauses

In drc, we sometimes leave out who/which/that + is/are/was/were

before participles (-ing & –ed forms).

E.g. -The nurse who is looking after my mother is very kind to here.

(= The nurse looking after my mother is very kind to her.)

-The book which was presented to me as a prize is very useful.

(= The book presented to me as a prize is very useful.)

 2. Non-defining relative clauses

In this RC, it is already clear who or what we are talking about,

So the RC are not essential in identifying what or who is being talked about.

Commas are mandatory to separate the NDRC from the rest of the sentences.

We can’t use “that” instead of who, whom or which.

You can’t leave out relative pronouns.

That is never allowed in non defining relative clause.

Compare defining and non defining

E.g. My brother who/that lives in Jimma is a doctor.

-My brother, who lives in Jimma, is a doctor.

 Relative Pronouns

-The words used to link the relative clause with the main clause are known as

relative pronouns. These are: who, which, whom, whose, where.

1. Who: Referees to people and sometimes animals

Used to introduce both defining and non-defining relative clauses

Can be used both as a subject and object

Who + preposition (is followed by preposition)

2. Whom: Referees to people (in a more formal style)

Used to introduce both defining and non-defining relative clauses

Can be used as an object (instead of who if it is an object)

is preceded by a preposition (to whom)

3. Whose: Referees to possession by people, animals & rarely for things

Used to introduce both defining and non-defining relative clauses

We use it before nouns instead of possessive expressions (his, her..)

Is followed by a preposition

4. Which: Referees to animals and things

Used to introduce both defining and non-defining relative clauses

Can be used both as a subject and object (instead of who if it is an object)

is preceded by a preposition (in which)

5. That: Referees to people, animals & things

Use it instead of (who, whom& which) in defining relative clauses only

Can be used both as a subject and object

Introduces defining clauses only

That is followed by a preposition

6. When: Referees time, Can be used as an adverb

Only with defining relative clauses

7. Where: Referees to place

Can be used as an adverb

 with defining & non-defining relative clauses

8. Why: Refers to reason

Can be used as an adverb

9. What: Refers to people (nominal relative pronoun)

It is a determiner

10. Wherever: Refers to place (at any place), compound relative pronoun