Paper 1

Keywords
• State: give 1 word or 1 sentence answers with no description.
• Identify: give 1 word answers
• Describe: give a brief explanation of the required content.... I.e.
Describe the von neumann architecture: the von neumann architecture
makes used of the fetch decode execute cycle to process data and
instructions from RAM.
• Explain: give a detailed explanation.. I.e. Explain how sound is understood
by computers?
Sound is converted into binary by:
1. Measuring the height of a soundwave at regular intervals.
2. Each of these measurements is called a sample.
3. Each sample is then converted to binary.
Keywords
• Justify: give your answer and your reasoning for the given answer. I.e. Jen
wants to pick either computer A (1.2ghz) or computer B(3.6ghz).
Recommended a computer and justify your choice?[3]
• Jen should pick computer B. This is because it has a higher clock speed of
3.2ghz compared to 1.2ghz, which means computer b will perform
3.2billion FDE cycles per second compared to 1.2billion FDE cycles for
computer A.
• Discuss: give detailed description of each topic. Break the topic into
subtopics and explain each subtopic.
• Compare: give detailed description of each item being compared and give
justification of why 1 is better than the other.
CPU
• The purpose of the CPU is to process all data given to a computer. This is
also called a processor.
• It does this using the FDE cycle(this is known as the Fetch - Decode -
Execute cycle )
Steps of FDE cycle:
1. Fetch Data from RAM
2. Decode instructions
3. Execute instructions
4. Increment program counter
5. repeat
CPU components:
1. CU: sends control signals to direct all other components.
2. ALU: performs mathematical calculations and makes logical decisions
3.Registers: these are superfast memory location inside the CPU(closest to
CPU)
4.There are 4 registers:
• MAR(memory address register): holds address of current instruction
• MDR(memory Data register): holds the actual current instruction
• ACCUMULATOR: holds the result of any calculations.
• PROGRAM COUNTER: holds the address of the next instruction.

MAR and MDR work together. MAR tells the CPU where the current instruction is stored in RAM, this instruction
then gets fetched to the MDR
The CPU
Unit 1 Systems architecture, memory and storage

Factors affecting CPU performance

Clock speed
Cycles per second
Cache size
measured in hertz Superfast working
memory

Number of cores
The number of duplicate
processors linked
together on a single chip
The CPU
Unit 1 Systems architecture, memory and storage

Processor Speed
• One cycle per second = 1 Hertz (Hz) = 1 instruction
carried out each second
• 1 Kilohertz (KHz) = 1000 cycles per second
• Mega=1000xKilo
• So 1 Megahertz is….
• 1,000,000 cycles per second
• Giga=1000xMega
• So 1 Gigahertz (GHz) is….
• 1 Gigahertz (GHz) = 1,000,000,000 cycles per second
(Approximately 1 billion!)
The CPU
Unit 1 Systems architecture, memory and storage

Multi-core processors
• A dual-core processor has two processors in the same integrated
circuit, linked together
• A dual-core processor has twice the power but does not always
perform twice as fast, because the software may not be able to take full
advantage of both processors
• A quad-core processor has four linked processors
The CPU
Unit 1 Systems architecture, memory and storage

Effect on speed
• A quad-core processor working on many different tasks simultaneously,
under ideal conditions can be up to 4 times faster than a single-core
processor
• If the computer is running a single program, it is not necessarily any
faster, since instructions have to be carried out in sequence
The CPU
Unit 1 Systems architecture, memory and storage

Cache memory
• Cache is a small amount of very
CPU
fast, expensive memory in the CPU
• It can be accessed faster than
regular main memory (RAM)
• Why is this useful for frequently Cache
used data?

Main Memory
The CPU
Unit 1 Systems architecture, memory and storage

Effect on speed of cache

• RAM is relatively slow memory and it is further away
from the processor than cache
• It takes longer to retrieve an instruction or data from
RAM than from cache
• Program instructions and data that are fetched are
stored in cache in case they are needed again soon
• If you have a “while” loop in a program, for example,
having all the instructions in the loop in cache
speeds up execution
The CPU
Unit 1 Systems architecture, memory and storage

Levels of cache memory

The CPU
Unit 1 Systems architecture, memory and storage

Embedded systems
The CPU
Unit 1 Systems architecture, memory and storage

What is it?
• An embedded system is a computer system that is built into another
device.
Properties:
• Embedded systems have limited functions.
Why we need them?
• Without embedded systems, a digital device would not be able to
perform specific functions
The CPU
Unit 1 Systems architecture, memory and storage

Examples of embedded systems

• Dishwasher
• MP3 player
• Washing machine
• Mobile phone
• Manufacturing equipment
The CPU
Unit 1 Systems architecture, memory and storage

Primary memory
The CPU
Unit 1 Systems architecture, memory and storage

RAM
• Is often referred to as:
• main memory, primary memory,
central memory, core memory

• It can be read from and written to

• Access to RAM is very fast
• RAM is volatile and any data stored in RAM is removed once
power is turned off.
• At any one time it will normally contain:
• The Operating System (or part currently in use)
• The software currently in use
• The data which the software is using
The CPU
Unit 1 Systems architecture, memory and storage

RAM
RAM
• The computer stores running programs
and data in RAM when your computer is
turned on
• When your computer is off, RAM is empty
as it is volatile
• All your programs and data are safe on
your hard disk

Empty
The CPU
Unit 1 Systems architecture, memory and storage

Operating system
RAM
• When you switch on your computer, the
startup instructions load the Operating
System from your hard disk into RAM

Operating
system
The CPU
Unit 1 Systems architecture, memory and storage

RAM memory
RAM
• When applications or programs are
loaded, they are copied into RAM from
the hard disk Documents
in use
• Documents (data) that are used with
Clipboard
those programs are also opened by
copying them into RAM as the working Excel
memory Word

• RAM starts to fill up

Operating
system
The CPU
Unit 1 Systems architecture, memory and storage

Running out of space

RAM
• You now want to open a
browser to search the Internet
Documents
• The browser software needs in use

more memory than you have Browser

Clipboard
free in RAM
Excel
• What do you think happens?
Word

Operating
system
The CPU
Unit 1 Systems architecture, memory and storage

Virtual memory
Hard Disk RAM
• Virtual memory is part of the hard drive
used as an extension to RAM Documents
in use
• This helps the computer run more
programs then the total size of RAM. Clipboard

Excel

Word

Operating
system
Browser
The CPU
Unit 1 Systems architecture, memory and storage

What happens when memory space

completely fills up?
The CPU
Unit 1 Systems architecture, memory and storage

Read-only memory (ROM)

• Some data needs to be permanently held in memory, even when a
computer has no power
• ROM is Read only memory
• It is non-volatile memory and permanently stores information
• ROM can only be read from and not written to.
The CPU
Unit 1 Systems architecture, memory and storage

Secondary storage
Storage Technologies
Learning Objectives:
To understand…
Magnetic Storage
• the need for secondary storage
• data capacity and calculation of
data capacity requirements
• common types of storage:
• optical
• magnetic
• solid state
• suitable storage devices and
storage media for a given
Optical Storage
application, and the advantages
and disadvantages of these, using
characteristics:
• capacity
• speed
• portability
• durability
• reliability
• cost.
Solid State Storage
Which storage media, when and why?
Learning Objectives: Magnetic Storage
To understand…
• the need for secondary storage Use Desktop computers to store large files, programs and
operating systems
• data capacity and calculation of
data capacity requirements Capacity 750GB – 3TB (3000GB) (Large)
• common types of storage: Speed High read/write speeds
• optical
• magnetic Portability Heavy / poor portability (even external are clunky!)
• solid state Durability Dropping this device could cause damage, especially to the
• suitable storage devices and ‘read head’
storage media for a given Reliability Can be used again and again but does have a limited life (a
application, and the advantages good few years)
and disadvantages of these, using Cost Low cost (quite cheap)
characteristics: Hard Disk
• capacity (Hard Drive)
• speed
• portability
Use Backing up vast amount of data
• durability
• reliability Capacity 1 – 5TB (Very Large)
• cost. Speed High write speeds BUT Slow read speeds
Portability Fairly small and light (but reading device is not because if the data
you need is at the end of the tape you have to read/play the tape
from the start – which takes time (known as serial access))
Durability Fairly durable.
Reliability Can be used again and again.
Cost Cheap
Magnetic
Tape
Which storage media, when and why?
Learning Objectives:
To understand…
Optical Storage
• the need for secondary storage Use Storage of small media files and documents
• data capacity and calculation of
data capacity requirements Capacity 650MB (Small)
• common types of storage: Speed Moderate read/write speeds
• optical
Portability Very portable and light
• magnetic
• solid state Durability Fair durability, can survive the odd knock but scratches can
• suitable storage devices and damage the data.
storage media for a given CD-ROM Reliability CD-Rs are write once but can be read over and over. (CD-RW
application, and the advantages can be reused)
and disadvantages of these, using Cost Very cheap
characteristics:
• capacity
• speed
• portability
• durability Use Storage of larger media files and documents
• reliability Capacity 4.37GB (DVD) 25GB (Standard Blu-Ray) (Small)
• cost.
Speed Moderate read/write speeds
BLU-RAY
Portability Very portable and light
Durability Fair durability, can survive the odd knock but scratches can
damage the data.
Reliability DVD-Rs are write once but can be read over and over.

Cost Very cheap

DVD-ROM
Which storage media, when and why?
Learning Objectives:
To understand…
Solid State / Flash Storage
• the need for secondary storage Use Desktop computers, laptops and tablets to store large files,
• data capacity and calculation of programs and operating systems
data capacity requirements Capacity 64GB – 480GB (Moderate)
• common types of storage:
• optical Speed Super Fast (Read/Write)
• magnetic Portability Very portable (small and lightweight)
• solid state
• suitable storage devices and Durability No moving parts so can survive knocks and scrapes
storage media for a given Reliability Can be re-used many times (up to 100,00 times)
application, and the advantages
and disadvantages of these, using Solid State Drive Cost Very Expensive (per Gb)
characteristics:
• capacity
• speed
• portability Use Phones, Cameras (portable devices) – great choice as no
• durability moving parts so mobile devices can function whilst on the
• reliability move
• cost. Capacity 16GB – 64GB
Speed Super Fast (Read/Write)
Portability Extremely portable (small and lightweight)
Durability No moving parts so can survive knocks and scrapes

Reliability Can be re-used many times (up to 100,00 times)

Flash
Cost Expensive (per Gb)
SD Card
Which storage media, when and why?
Learning Objectives:
To understand…
Solid State / Flash Storage
• the need for secondary storage
• data capacity and calculation of
data capacity requirements Use Backing up or transferring documents, small media files
• common types of storage: from computer to computer
• optical Capacity 1GB – 64GB
• magnetic
• solid state Speed Super Fast (Read/Write)
• suitable storage devices and
storage media for a given Portability Extremely portable (small and lightweight)
application, and the advantages
and disadvantages of these, using Durability No moving parts so can survive knocks and scrapes
characteristics:
Flash Memory
• capacity Stick Reliability Can be re-used many times (up to 100,00 times)
• speed
• portability Cost Expensive (per Gb)
• durability
• reliability
• cost.
Other Storage Methods
Learning Objectives:
To understand…
Network Attached Storage (NAS)
• the need for secondary storage Use A stand alone external hard drive at the centre of a network. Plugs into the
• data capacity and calculation of network to allow users of different computers to write or read files. Usually
documents and media files.
data capacity requirements
• common types of storage: Capacity 750GB – 3TB (3000GB) (Large)
• optical
• magnetic Speed Hard disk has high read/write speeds
• solid state The network speed (transfer of data from computer to NAS) can cause slow data
access speeds
• suitable storage devices and
storage media for a given Portability Heavy / poor portability.
application, and the advantages
and disadvantages of these, using Durability Dropping this device could cause damage, especially to the ‘read head’
characteristics:
• capacity Reliability Can be used again and again but does have a limited life (a good few years)
• speed
• portability Cost If Hard Disk is used then storage is cheap
If SS Disk is used then storage is expensive
• durability In addition to the storage, the NAS enclosure can be very expensive depending on
• reliability its features.
• cost.

NAS Drive
Other Storage Methods
Learning Objectives:
To understand…
Cloud Storage (online storage)
• the need for secondary storage Use Used to store documents and media files online. This means that you can go to
• data capacity and calculation of another computer and access your files (providing you have internet access)
data capacity requirements
• common types of storage: Capacity Unlimited (providing you can pay for it).
• optical Speed Depends on network / bandwidth speeds
• magnetic Poor bandwidth can cause uploading and downloading of large files to take a long
• solid state time
• suitable storage devices and Portability It is virtual so you don’t have anything physical to move around.
storage media for a given Durability Providing you keep up payments and the company looks after their storage
application, and the advantages Reliability devices – very durable and reliable.
and disadvantages of these, using This is often because they back up storage devices in many places.
characteristics: There can be issues with the law as a company’s data may be stored in a country
which doesn’t follow the same data protection laws.
• capacity The hosting company could also me attached by hackers who could steal your
• speed data.
• portability
Cost Can be expensive depending on the service – but often it is free for a few Gbs.
• durability
• reliability
• cost.
Data representation
The CPU
Unit 1 Systems architecture, memory and storage

File sizes
• All files stored in a computer take up storage.
• Each file has its own file sizes.
• For e.g a movie stored in your computer may be 500MB.
• The computer uses its own measurement system to determine the size
of a file.
The CPU
Unit 1 Systems architecture, memory and storage

Units for computer storage

• 1 bit = a single 0 or 1
• 1 byte = 8 bits = 1 character of text
• (A nibble = 4 bits or half a byte)
• 1 KB = 1000 bytes
• 1 MB = 1000 KB or 1000x1000 bytes
• 1 GB = 1000 MB
• 1 TB = 1000 GB
• How many TB in a Petabyte?
 The CPU
Unit 1 Systems architecture, memory and storage

Denary to binary
• Convert 28 to binary:

• Method

• Working right to left, write out the numbers 1, 2, 4, 8 and so on doubling each time to 128

• 28 has a 16 in it, leaving 12. 12 is 8 + 4

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0
Local Area Networks
Unit 3 Networks, connections and protocols

Hexadecimal
• Hexadecimal (or hex) is a number system which
uses base 16
• As we only have 10 digits, it uses 0-9 and then the
letters A to F

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F

• What is F in denary?
• What is 10 in hex?
Local Area Networks
Unit 3 Networks, connections and protocols

Denary to hex conversion

• Divide the denary number by 16 to get the number of
16s (the left-hand hex digit)
• The remainder gives you the units
Denary 18 becomes:
18 / 16 = 1 remained 2 so
the hex value for 18 is 12
(Spoken, ‘One Two’, not ‘Twelve’)
• What is denary 27 in hex?
• What is denary 44 in hex?
Client-server and peer-to-peer networks
Unit 3 Networks, connections and protocols

Hex to denary conversions

• What is hex 27 in denary?
• 2 x 16 + 7 = 39

• What is denary 27 in hex?

• 1 x 16 remainder 11 (11 is B in hex) = 1B

• What is denary 44 in hex?

• 2 x 16 remainder 12 (12 is C in hex) = 2C

0010 0111 =
00011011 =
00101100 =
Local Area Networks
Unit 3 Networks, connections and protocols

Binary to hex conversion

• Take a binary word of 8 bits
11100101
• Divide into two nibbles of 4 bits
1110 0101
• Convert each nibble into its hex value and rejoin
1 1 1 0 = 14 = E in Hex + 0 1 0 1 = 5 in Hex
So 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 = E5 in Hex
Local Area Networks
Unit 3 Networks, connections and protocols

Why use hex?

• There are advantages for programmers and
Computer Scientists in using hex rather than binary
• It is much simpler to remember a hex value than a
binary value
• It is quicker to write or type since a hex digit only takes up one
digit rather than 4 bits
• People are less likely to make an error with fewer digits
• It is easy to convert between hex and binary
The CPU
Unit 1 Systems architecture, memory and storage

Logical binary shift operations

• A binary shift left of one bit moves all the bits one place to the left
• New spaces are filled with zeros
0 0 1 1 1 1 0

0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0

• Looking at the table above, what effect does a shift left of one place have
on the binary value?
• What effect would a shift right of two places have?
The CPU
Unit 1 Systems architecture, memory and storage

Effects of shifts
• Logical shifts can very quickly multiply or divide a binary number by a
factor of two
• Left shifts multiply
• Right shifts divide

• A loss of accuracy can occur if 1 bits are removed:

• 22 / 4 is not exactly 5

0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0

0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1
Overflow error
• Computers have a limit to how many bits they can store. E.g. 8bit,
16bit, 32bit, 64bit.
• An overflow error is an error that occurs when the result of a binary
operation has more bits than the number of bits the computer works
with.
• This happens because the computer is unable to store the extra bit,
so it has to drop it.

45
The CPU
Unit 1 Systems architecture, memory and storage

Most significant Bit vs Least significant

Bit
• The least significant bit (LSB) is the rightmost digit in a binary number.
• even numbers will always have a 0 as the LSB.
• odd numbers a 1 as the LSB.

0111101
• The Most significant bit(MSB) is the Leftmost digit in a binary number.

01111000
Binary Addition

Carry: 1 1
1 1 1 0 Rules:
+ 1 0 1 1+0=0
1 0 0 1 1 1+1=0 carry 1
0+0=0
1+1+1=1 carry 1
Calculations
• colour depth is the amount of bits used to represent each pixel.
• The resolution is the total number of pixels within an image
• DPI is the number of pixels per inch of screen.

Change Effect on quality

Higher DPI Higher quality
Larger resolution(more pixels) Higher quality
Larger bit depth(more bits) Higher quality
Calculations

Image size= Resolution x Bit depth

sound
The CPU
Unit 1 Systems architecture, memory and storage

Analogue to digital conversion

• Analogue sound signals are continuous

• Digital signals are discrete

• Sound is digitized by repeatedly measuring and recording the sound wave

The CPU
Unit 1 Systems architecture, memory and storage

Analogue to digital convertors

Analogue to Digital Digital to Analogue

The CPU
Unit 1 Systems architecture, memory and storage

Sound sampling
The CPU
Unit 1 Systems architecture, memory and storage

Sound sampling
The CPU
Unit 1 Systems architecture, memory and storage

Key information:
• Sound is converted from audio waves to digital
• This is done by taking samples of the sound at
regular intervals.
• This is known as sampling
• The amount of samples taken per second is known
as sampling rate.
• The bit depth is the number of bits used to record
each sample.

5 00000101
The CPU
Unit 1 Systems architecture, memory and storage

File size for sounds

Sample size= Sample rate(number of samples per

second) x bit depth(number of bits per sample)x
length of sound track(number of seconds)
Networks
By size
Networking - LANs
Learning Objectives:
To understand… What is a LAN?
• LAN (Local Area Network)
• factors that affect the
performance of networks
• the different roles of computers
in a client-server and a peer-to-
• A LAN is a Local Area Network.
peer network
• the hardware needed to connect
stand-alone computers into a
Local Area Network:
• wireless access points • A LAN is 2 or more devices connected
together over a small geographical
• routers/switches
• NIC (Network Interface

area.
Controller/Card)
• transmission media

• It is devices connected by user owned

hardware/infrastructure.
Networking - WANs
Learning Objectives:
To understand…
What is a WAN?
• LAN (Local Area Network)
• factors that affect the
performance of networks
• the different roles of computers
• A WAN is a Wide Area Network.
in a client-server and a peer-to-
peer network
• the hardware needed to connect
• A WAN is 2 or more devices connected
stand-alone computers into a together over a large geographical
Local Area Network:
• wireless access points area.
• routers/switches
• NIC (Network Interface
Controller/Card)
• It is devices connected by satellites,
• transmission media backbone cables and long range
devices.
Network hardware
 Local Area Networks
Unit 3 Networks, connections and protocols

Router: device used to connect a network of

devices to the internet.

Task carried out by a router:

•Receive packets
•Forward/sending/transmitting packets
•Maintain a routing table // by description
•Identify the most efficient path to the destination
/ correct IP / correct location
•Assign IP addresses to nodes/devices
•Converts packets from one protocol to another.
 Local Area Networks
Unit 3 Networks, connections and protocols

Switch: device used to connect multiple

devices to a network.

Task carried out by a switch:

Local Area Networks
Unit 3 Networks, connections and protocols

Network Interface Cards

• A Network Interface Card (NIC) is built into every
networked device
• It may be wireless with an antenna or wired with a
network cable socket
• A network interface card allows a device to connect to
a network.
• Most modern computers and
phones incorporate
the NIC into
the motherboard
Local Area Networks
Unit 3 Networks, connections and protocols

WirelessAccessPoint(WAP)
• Used to connect wireless devices to a wireless
network.
• Extends the range of existing wireless networks.

How does it work:

• Receives Wireless signals
• Amplifies these signals.
• Sends these signals.
Network Types
Local Area Networks
Unit 3 Networks, connections and protocols

The client-server model

• In the client-server model, there is a client computer and
a server
• The server is a powerful computer which provides services or
resources required by any of the clients
• A client is a computer or device which requests the services or
resources provided by the server
Query
Search
request

Client
Web Database server
Response server
Local Area Networks
Unit 3 Networks, connections and protocols

Servers on LANs and WANs

• One or more servers may be part of a
local area network
• A server may also be part of a wide area network

• Companies such as Google and Amazon have huge

data centres servers in several different countries
• Each data centre will contain thousands of servers
Local Area Networks
Unit 3 Networks, connections and protocols

A school client-server setup

• Five different types of server in a typical school are
given below
• What do each of them do?

File Print Mail Web Database

Server Server Server Server Server
 Client-server and peer-to-peer networks
Unit 3 Networks, connections and protocols

Serving all your needs

• In a school network, there may be dozens or even hundreds of clients
and several servers
• A file server holds all the data files and databases and manages
backups
• A print server may organise printing on different printers
• An email server may receive emails, detect and block spam, distribute
emails to users
• A web server may host the school’s external website
• A database server may hold student records
Client-server and peer-to-peer networks
Unit 3 Networks, connections and protocols

Client-server advantages
• Some specific examples of advantages include:
• With file servers, just one file server needs to be backed up and files can be accessed
from any computer
• Email servers provide a central place for email that is then accessed from different
devices
• One print server can manage all files to be printed. This allows one printer to be
shared by many computers
 Local Area Networks
Unit 3 Networks, connections and protocols

Peer-to-peer networking
• Features of a peer-to-peer network include:
• Suitable for a small companies with fewer computers
• No central server controls files or security
• All computers can easily see files on all other computers
• All computers can communicate with each other without going
through a server

• A peer-to-peer network has no central server

Local Area Networks
Unit 3 Networks, connections and protocols

Advantages of a P2P network

• There are a number of advantages of P2P networks
• Easier to set up – computers can simply be cabled together
• No need for dedicated server equipment
• Individual computers can share a printer, router, modem and other
hardware
• Users can communicate directly with each other and share each
others’ files
• Peer to peer networks are often used in home setups or
a small office with few computers
• What are the disadvantages?
Client-server and peer-to-peer networks
Unit 3 Networks, connections and protocols

Disadvantages of P2P networks

• There are a number of disadvantages of peer to peer networks
including:
• Viruses and malware are more easily transferred over this type of network as there is
no central firewall
• Data recovery and backup is not done centrally, so each computer has to have its
own backup system
• Files are not centrally organised, but stored on individual computers and may be hard
to locate if the computer’s owner does not have a logical filing and naming system
• If a computer is switched off, data on that machine cannot be retrieved from other
machines
Client-server and peer-to-peer networks
Unit 3 Networks, connections and protocols

Client server vs Peer-to-Peer

Client-Server Peer-to-Peer
A central backup server backs up all file
Each computer needs to be backed up
servers
Security is controlled by each individual
Security is controlled by a central server
machine
There is no central server. If one
All users are reliant on the central server computer goes down then only its
services are lost
Using servers enables businesses to
Peer-to-peer networks are difficult to
grow to hundreds or thousands of
maintain beyond a few computers
computers and users
Network connections
Local Area Networks
Unit 3 Networks, connections and protocols

Wired networks
• Connected together using wires
• Faster transfer speeds compared to wireless networks.
• Is expensive to install compared to wireless
• More secure compared to wireless.
• Restricted movement as new wires are needed for new devices.
• Require an NIC
Local Area Networks
Unit 3 Networks, connections and protocols

Wireless networks
• Connected together without wires
• slower transfer speeds compared to wireless networks.
• less secure compared to wired.
• Allows more devices to be connected at a time.
• Devices can be moved around and remain connected
• Cheaper as less wiring needed
• Require an WNIC
Local Area Networks
Unit 3 Networks, connections and protocols
Network protocols & Layers
The CPU
Unit 1 Systems architecture, memory and storage

Protocol types
Protocol responsibility
HTTP used for accessing and receiving web pages in the form of HTML files on the
Internet
HTTPS used for securely accessing and receiving encrypted web pages in the form of
HTML files on the Internet
POP Retrieves email(or contents of email) from a mail server. Deletes the email(or
contents of email) from the mail server.
IMAP Retrieves email(or contents of email) from a mail server. Keeps a copy of the
email on the server.(no deletion)
SMTP Set of rules for transferring emails between mail servers.
TCP Breaks down and re-assembles packets. Also requests any missing packets
during packet switching.
IP Routes the packets being sent during packet switching.
FTP Used to send or receive files over the internet
The CPU
Unit 1 Systems architecture, memory and storage

TCP/IP protocol
• TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)
Is in-charge of breakdown and reassemble part of packet
switching
• Breaks up messages sent over the Internet into small chunks called
packets
• Reassembles the packets at the other end
• Detects errors
• Resends lost messages

• IP protocol
Is in-charge of choosing the routes to take during packet
switching
• Routes the individual packets
The CPU
Unit 1 Systems architecture, memory and storage

Layers
A layer is a group of protocols used to achieve a certain
goal.
Each layer can have multiple protocols.
Each layer can work independently of each other.
Each layer prepares the data to be sent to the next one.
The CPU
Unit 1 Systems architecture, memory and storage

The 4 layers
• Application layer:
Turns data into websites and other application or vice versa. all applications that
operate on networks such as browsers operate here.
• Transport layer:
Controls the flow of data. Checks if data is too big and breaks it down into packets.
• Network layer: (the GPS)
Makes connections between networks to accurately plots course of data to
destinations. Labels the packets.
• Data-Link layer:
Physically links the devices together and actually the data. E.g. ethernet cables, Wi-Fi
routers, WAP’s.
The CPU
Unit 1 Systems architecture, memory and storage

Layers
The CPU
Unit 1 Systems architecture, memory and storage

The TCP/IP protocol stack

It’s a different concept compared to TCP/IP protocol

• The protocol stack defines four layers in which

different protocols operate to pass data packets
across a network
• The four layers are divisions of network functionality,
each carrying out different roles:
• Application layer
• Transport layer
• Network layer
• Link layer