Uniform Flow
Uniform Flow
UNIFORM FLOW
Introduction
In free-surface flow, the component of the weight of water in the downstream direction causes acceleration of flow
(and flow deceleration if the bottom slope is negative).
The shear stress at the channel bottom and sides resists flow.
If the channel is long and prismatic (i.e., channel cross section and bottom slope do not change with distance), then
the flow accelerates or decelerates for a distance until the accelerating and resistive forces are equal.
If the flow depth does not change with distance, it is called uniform flow, and the corresponding flow depth is
called the normal depth.
In this chapter:
• A relationship will be derived to relate the bottom shear stress to different flow variables.
• Some empirical resistance formulas for the free-surface flows will be presented.
• A procedure for computing the normal depth for a given discharge in a channel of known properties is outlined.
Flow Resistance
Leonardo da Vinci described the resistance offered by the channel bottom and sides to free-surface flows
and its effects on the velocity distribution as follows:
“The water of straight rivers is the swifter the farther away it is from the walls, because of resistance. Water
has higher speed on the surface than at the bottom. This happens because water on the surface borders on air
which is of little resistance, because lighter than water, and the water at the bottom is touching the earth
which is of higher resistance, because heavier than water and not moving. From this follows that the part
which is more distant from the bottom has less resistance than that below.”
Flow Resistance Equations
Chezy Equation
Assumptions: The flow is steady; the slope of the channel bottom is small; and the channel is prismatic.
Forces are acting on the control volume are:
1- pressure force on the upstream side, F1
2- pressure forces on the downstream side, F2 and F3
3- a component of the weight of water in the control volume in the downstream direction, Wx
4- shear force, Ff , acting on the channel bottom and the sides.
Component of weight in x- Wx = γAΔx sin θ
direction:
Since channel-bottom slope is assumed to be small, sinθ ≈ tanθ ≈ −dz/dx
θ = angle between the channel bottom and the horizontal axis.
Pressure force: F1 = γA
Pressure force:
Residual Pressure
force:
Friction force by channel bottom and walls:
P = wetted perimeter
The resultant force, Fr acting on the control volume in the downstream direction is
Since So = −dz/dx :
in which k is a dimensionless constant that depends upon the Reynolds number, roughness of the channel
bottom and sides, etc.
C = Chezy constant.
This equation was introduced by a French engineer named Antoine Chezy, in 1768 while designing a canal
for the water supply system of Paris
However, like f, C depends upon the channel roughness and the Reynolds number, Re. In addition, it may depend
upon the channel cross-sectional shape, as well.
Comparing the Chezy equation for open channels with the Darcy-Weisbach formula for pipes
f
Noting that hydraulic radius, R, for a pipe is equal to D/4 :
A flow may be considered hydraulically smooth even though channel surface is rough if projections of surface
roughness are covered by viscous sublayer.
Classification is done using dimensionless roughness Reynolds number:
Rs = kV*/ν
Smooth flows
In transition region, f and C behave quite differently. Hence, unlike smooth and fully rough regions, relationships
for f does not work for C.
Preceding equations are valid only for small channels with fairly smooth surfaces since these are based on pipe
data.
Empirical relationships and field observations should be employed for large channels with rough flow surfaces.
Manning Equation
Unlike the Darcy-Weisbach friction factor for the closed conduits, developing a rational procedure for estimating
Chezy constant C, is not easy because C depends upon several parameters in addition to channel roughness.
Then:
V is in m/s, and R is in m.
In the foot-pound-second units, this equation becomes
Value of n depends mainly upon the surface roughness, amount of vegetation, and channel irregularity, and,
to a lesser degree, upon stage, scour and deposition, and channel alignment.
a. n = 0.024 (Columbia River at Vernita, Washington):
The channel bottom consists of slime-covered cobbles and
gravel, the steep left bank composed of cemented cobbles and
gravel, and the right bank consists of cobbles set in gravel.
b. n = 0.030 (Salt Creek at Roca, Nebraska):
The bottom consists of sand and clay; the banks are smooth and
free of vegetation.
c. n = 0.032 (Salt River below Stewart Mountain Dam, Arizona):
The bottom and banks consist of smooth 0.15-m diameter
cobbles, with few 0.45-m diameter boulders.
d. n = 0.036 (West Fork Bitterroot River near Conner, Montana):
The bottom is gravel and boulders, d50 = 1.72m; left bank has
overhanging bushes and the right bank has trees.
e. n = 0.041 (Middle Fork Flathead River near Essex, Montana):
The bottom consists of boulders, d50 = 1.4 m; banks are composed
of gravel and boulders and have trees and brushes.
f. n = 0.049 (Deep River at Ramseur, North Carolina):
The bottom is mostly coarse sand and contains some gravel; the
banks are fairly steep and have underbrush and trees.
g. n = 0.050 (Clear Creek near Golden, Colorado):
The bottom and banks are composed of 0.7-m diameter angular
boulders.
h. n = 0.060 (Rock Creek Canal near Darby, Montana):
The bottom and banks consists of boulders d50 = 2.1 m.
i. n = 0.070 (Pond Creek near Louisville, Kentucky):
The bottom is fine sand and silt; the banks are irregular with heavy growth of trees.
j. n = 0.075 (Rock Creek near Darby, Montana):
The bottom consists of boulders, d50 = 2.2 m; the banks are composed of boulders and have brush and trees.
Computation of Normal Depth
To analyze open channel flow, it is usually necessary to know the normal depth, y.
The Manning equation for uniform flow in terms of discharge may be written as
For a given channel section and specified bottom slope, only one discharge is possible for a given normal
depth.
Note that K is a function of normal depth, properties of channel section and Manning n.
section factor
For specified values of n, Q, and So, we solve this equation to determine the normal depth in a given channel.
This may be done by using the design charts presented by Chow [1959], by a trial-and-error procedure, or
by using numerical methods.
Design Curves
Trial-and-Error Procedure
Substitute expressions for the flow area A, hydraulic radius, R, and the values of n, Q, and So into equation
below and then, solve the resulting equation by a trial-and-error procedure.
Numerical Methods
To determine yn by Newton-Raphson method, equation above can be written as
dA/dyn = B
For a trapezoidal section having side slopes of s horizontal to 1 vertical, dP/dyn = 2√1+ s2.
Example
Compute the normal depth in a trapezoidal channel having a bottom-width of 10 m, side slopes of 2H to 1V
and carrying a flow of 30 m3/s. The slope of the channel bottom is 0.001 and n = 0.013.
Given:
Q = 30 m3/s
n = 0.013
Bo = 10 m
s=2
So = 0.001
Co = 1.0
Determine:
yn = ?
Solution:
We use the procedures mentioned determine yn.
Design curves
By substituting the values of n, Q, and So into
For s = 2 and AR2/3/B08/3 = 0.026, we read from the graph that yn/B0 = 0.11. Hence, yn = 1.1m.
Trial-and-Error Procedure
We earlier computed AR2/3 = 12.33 for the design curve procedure. By using the data for the channel, we obtain
the following expressions for A and R:
Now, substituting these expressions for A and R into AR2/3 = 12.33 and simplifying the resulting equation, we
obtain Try and error
yn = 1.09m
Example
Given a trapezoidal channel with a bottom width of 3 m, side slopes of 1.5:1, a longitudinal slope of 0.0016,
and a Manning’s coefficient of n=0.013, determine the normal discharge if the normal depth of flow is 2.6 m.
Example
Given a trapezoidal channel with a bottom width of 3 m, side slopes of 1.5:1, a longitudinal slope of 0.0016,
and a resistance coefficient of n=0.013, find the normal depth of flow for a discharge of 7.1 m 3/s.
Develop a table:
Equivalent Manning Constant
If the channel bottom and sides are made from different materials, then the Manning n for the bottom and
sides may have different values.
ne is referred to as the equivalent n for the entire cross section. For a channel section that may be subdivided
into N subareas having wetted perimeter Pi and Manning constant, ni, (i = 1, 2, · · · ,N).
By assuming that the mean flow velocity in each of the subareas is equal to the mean flow velocity in the
entire section, the following equation may be derived:
Similarly, by assuming that the total force resisting the flow is equal to the sum of forces resisting the flow
in each subarea [Muhlhofer, 1933; Einstein and Banks, 1951]:
By considering total discharge is equal to the sum of the discharge in each subarea, Lotter [1933] obtained
the following equation for the equivalent Manning constant:
Compound Channel Cross Section
A compound cross section may be defined as a section in which various subareas have different flow
properties, e.g., surface roughness, etc.
The roughness of the overbanks is usually higher than that of the main channel; and, therefore, the flow
velocity in the main channel is higher than that in the overbank flow.
The analysis of flow in a compound section becomes complex if the flow in each subarea is considered
separately. This requires the use of a two- or three-dimensional model or to apply a one-dimensional model
separately to each subarea by considering the flow in each sub-area as parallel flow and allowing for the
exchange of mass and momentum between the adjacent subareas.
Due to different flow velocity there is no common level for the energy grade line for the entire section.
To avoid this complexity, we derive expressions for the energy coefficient, α, and for Sf in terms of the conveyance
factor, K, of the subareas.
With these expressions, the flow in a compound section may be computed without knowing the individual flows in
each subarea
Assume Sf has the same value for all subareas, i.e., Sfi = Sf (i = 1, 2, · · · ,N).
By substituting the equations above in the equation for α
We get
=
=