when your psychology professor gives you a

reading list longer than you think you can

endure, keep in mind that it is nothing more
than a reflection of his or her high regard for
your intellectual ability!
 Memory
• Memory is a system or a process by which the products or
results of learning are stored for the future. it is the process
by which we encode the information into meaningful form,
store for the future use retrieve when we need the
information. Researchers note that human memory must
accomplish three basic tasks: encoding, storage and retrieval.
• Encoding is the process through which information is
converted into a meaningful form that can be entered into
memory. Encoding would be easier if the materials are
familiar and meaningful and presented in visual form. If the
materials presented are about theory or abstract principles,
they are difficult to encode. The familiar events or materials
can be encoded with very less efforts while unfamiliar or
abstract materials need some efforts for the encoding.
• Storage is the process through which information is
retained in memory. The encoded materials can be
recorded in the nervous system called memory trace. One
memory trace can be associated with other traces and
stored. Such associated storage of information can be
easily remembered.
• Retrieval is the process through which information stored
in memory is brought back in use when it is needed later
on. The popular ways of retrieving the information are
recalling, recognizing and relearning.
• Recalling : recalling is bringing the past experiences or past
learning into present consciousness in the absence of
stimuli. For example we recall the subjects we learnt in the
past while facing the exam.
• Recognizing : Recognizing is a way of retrieving
information. We recognize in the presence of
stimuli. We simply recognize sorting out the
materials. In recognizing process, persons are
presented names, events or situation so as to
ensure that they have encountered before, too.
• Relearning : the material or information once learnt
is relearned for maintaining the retrieval. It is often
done in a gap of time.
Only when these three processes have been operated
we will be able to recall the information.
 Memory system

• The stage theory Model : Stage theory model of

memory was developed by Richard Atkinson and
Richard Shiffrin. It is also called Atkinson-Shiffrin
model. This theory assumes that human beings
have three stage memory systems and they hold
the information for different length of time. This
theory proposes the existence of the three
separate stores: sensory memory, short term
memory and long term memory.
• Sensory memory: it is the initial, momentary
storage of information lasting only an instant. This
memory makes us perceive of momentary flash of
lighting, the sound of twig snapping and the
pinprick. This memory operates as a king of
snapshot that stores information – which may be of
visual, auditory or sensory nature for a brief period
of time. But it is easily destroyed and replaced with
the new one. Unless the information in the
snapshot is translated to some other type of
memory, it is lost. It is stored in the memory less
than a second.
 Short term memory
• Many stimuli that people perceive in the course of a
day are dropped out of the sensory memory without
further processing while some stimuli make greater
impression. The stimuli which we pay attention and
rehearsed would be transferred to processing into short
term memory. Short-term memory is the memory that
holds the information for 15 to 25 seconds.
short term memory cannot hold relatively full and
detailed images. Rather it holds seven items or chunks –
meaningful grouping of stimuli. If the chunks or items are
rehearsed only then they enter into long term memory.
 Long term memory
• long term memory holds the information,
concepts, ideas and skills relatively longer span of
time. It is a store house for the information,
concepts and skills. The information which remains
in the short term memory as an impressive form
and which is rehearsed or repeated there, might be
transferred to long term memory. The storage
capacity of long term memory is limitless and once
the information is stored it remains for days,
months or the year.
 Contemporary model
contemporary approaches of memory assume two
memory systems: working memory and long term memory.
Rather than
seeing short term memory as an independent way station
into which memories arrive, either to fade or to be passed
to long term memory, the contemporary approach to
memory theory takes short term memory as an active
process. In this view short term memory is like an
information processing system that manages both new
material gathered from sensory memory and older material
that has been pulled from long term storage. In this view
short term memory is referred to as working memory and
defined as a set of contemporary memory stores that
 Working memory permits us to keep
information in an active state briefly so that we can
do something with the information. For example
while doing mathematics we store the result of one
calculation to which we will use in another step.

Long term memory: Like in three stage model, the

contemporary approach to memory also takes this
memory as store house of facts, information,
concepts, ideas and skills with unlimited capacity.
Psychologists have grouped the long term memory
into two types : declarative and procedural memory.
• The declarative memory: Declarative memory is
memory for factual information: names, dates, facts
etc. This memory is further categorized as semantic
memory and episodic memory. Semantic memory is
memory about general information about
information and facts as well as rules of logic that
are used to deduce other facts. Because of this
memory we know that memory is incorrect spelling
of memory or Delhi is the capital of India. In
semantic memory information seems to be stored in
a highly organised way. Such organization of
information makes it possible for us to make logical
inferences from the information stored in semantic
 In contrast, episodic memory is memory of events
that have occurred in a particular time or place. Thus from
episodic memory we recall how we learned to ride bike or
how we learned algebra in school. In other words our
remembrance of the past make up our episodic memory
unlike semantic memory episodic memory does not
have logical organization. It is a record of what has
happened in our life or in a particular time and does not
allow us to make inferences.
Procedural memory: it is a memory for skills and habits,
such as riding a bike or operating computer. Likewise our
memories related to cooking, typing, gardening are all
procedural in nature. Once it is obtained it is used for a
 Improving Memory
• The way people learn and retain the information
affects the memory. If people have learnt the
information with a good encoding and if the
information is rehearsed time and again, the
memory would last longer. The effectiveness of
learning depends on the behaviour of the
individuals, types of task, learning environment and
physical and mental health of individuals.
Adopting effective ways of learning we can use and
improve memory. The factors that influence memory are
as follows:
• Meaningful organization or encoding: it the received stimuli
are encoded in a organized way and rehearsed, we can
improve memory.
• Using imagery: we can remember the pictures, images and
symbols better than the word or abstract concepts. So if we
associate with the images or pictures, the memory would
be easier.
• Attitude and motivation of a learner: If the learner is well
motivated and he/she has positive attitude towards the
learning materials the memory would work effectively.
He/she would spend more time in repetition and adopt the
techniques for improving memory.
• Calculating the consequence of the learning: If the learner
has knowledge of the result of the learning, he would pay
• Physical and emotional state of the learner: in
order to improve memory the learner must be
physically healthy. Any form of deficiency in mind
would not help for the memory. Mental illness,
brain injury or mental retardation would obstacle
for the memory. Similarly, emotional disturbance
would also hinder in the proper functioning of
mind and memory would not improve in such
disturbance.
 Forgetting
• The term forgetting refers to the loss of information
which has been encoded and stored in the long term
memory. It is a failure to retain what has been acquired.
Forgetting has both positive and negative impacts.
Positive impact of forgetting is that it saves individuals
from painful and shocking memories and helps to be
free of miserable state. Negative impact is that failure
to recall important and useful information would hinder
in getting good marks, cause to be embarrassed, and
sometimes individuals would loose opportunity. People
want to remember useful information, facts, and skills
that are used in daily life and forget unpleasant and
painful experiences.
 Causes of forgetting
• Psychologists have proposed several explanations to
understand the nature of what we remember and why we
forget. Some of the explanations of forgetting are as follows:
• Decay theory Interference
Memory dysfunction
• Decay theory : Decay theory is the oldest explanation of
forgetting. It explains that forgetting takes place because the
information stored is not used for longer period of time.
Decay theory assumes that learning leaves a ‘trace’ in the
brain and this trace brings some sort of physical change. But
the trace fades away with the passing time unless the trace
is not maintained with the repetition. For example when we
see a picture, it can be recalled with details but as the time
passes the detailed are gradually forgotten.
• Interference : Interference theory suggests that forgetting
occurs because similar memories interfere with the storage
or retrieval of information. It explains that memory failure
is not because of the passage of time but it is due to the
intrusion of the similar memories. For example, students
often get confused when they study two similar theory or
two similar foreign words. There are two types of
interferences – proactive and retroactive interferences.
• Proactive interference: proactive interference assumes
that information learned earlier disturbs in the recalling of
newer information. For example, when we move to new
place or new house or use new cell phone, still we are
likely to use old address or old number. Similarly students
find difficult to recall new data and just present old data
Retroactive interference : retroactive interference
refers to difficulties in the recalling of information
because of the newly leaned materials. It occurs
because the recently stored materials occupy our
attention so much that even if we try to recall the
old materials individuals are unable to recall.
 Memory dysfunction
• Memory losses due to some problem in the brain are
related in this category. Alzheimer's disease and amnesia
are the main memory disorders causing to bring losses
of memory.
• Alzheimer's disease: Alzheimer's disease is an illness
characterized in part by severe memory problems. In
the beginning, its symptoms appear as simple
forgetfulness of things such as appointments and
birthdays. As the disease progresses memory loss
become more profound and even simple things like
telephone number of the home or direction of the place
are forgotten. Ultimately the victim loses the ability to
speak or comprehending of any conversation.
 The causes of this disease are not fully
understood. Increasing evidences suggest that it is
resulted from an inherited susceptibility to a defect
in the production of protein beta amyloid, which is
necessary for maintenance of nerve cell connection.
When the synthesis of beta amyloid lowers, large
clumps of cells form, triggering inflammation and
deterioration of nerve cells in the brain.
 Amnesia
Amnesia is a memory dysfunction without other
mental difficulties. The victim of this dysfunction is
unable to recall the past experience or past memory
sometimes totally and sometimes partially even the
simple tasks like friends, relatives, their names, their
location and some victims even can’t remember their
own names. Yet the victims do not lose the ability to
talk, read or basic habit patterns.
Amnesia occurs after experiencing physical or
psychological trauma. There are two types of amnesia –
• Retrograde amnesia : In retrograde amnesia
the victim loses the memory prior to a certain
event. Usually lost memory might recover if
the victim gets recovery from the trauma
although full restoration might takes a long
time. But even in cases of severe memory loss,
the loss is selective. The victim might not
recall the friends or the childhood but can play
a complicated games.
 Anterograde amnesia
• The inability to store new information after the
traumatic event is known as anterograde
amnesia. In this state the information cannot be
transferred from short term memory to long tern
memory, resulting inability to remember any
other thing than what was in the long term
storage before the individual had traumatic
event. But the victim would use the language,
recognize the friends he/she knows before the
traumatic event.