RAINFALL – RUN

OFF RELATION
RUN OFF
The quantity of water discharged in surface streams. It
includes not only the waters that travel over the land surface
and through channels to reach a stream but also interflow,
the water that infiltrates the soil surface and travels by
means of gravity toward a stream channel and eventually
empties into the channel.
THREE TYPES OF RUN - OFF
 A part of the precipitation that
infilters moves laterally through upper
crusts of the soil and returns to the
surface at some location away from the
point of entry into the soil.
This component of runoff is
known variously as interflow, through
flow, storm seepage, subsurface
storm flow or quick return flow.
 Direct Runoff
It is that part of the
runoff which enters the stream
immediately after the rainfall.
It includes surface runoff,
RUN – OFF IS prompt interflow and rainfall
CLASSIFIED on the surface of the stream.
INTO TWO
CATEGORIES:
Base Flow
the delayed flow
that reaches a stream
essentially as groundwater
flow.
 Direct Runoff
It is that part of the
runoff which enters the stream
immediately after the rainfall.
It includes surface runoff,
RUN – OFF IS prompt interflow and rainfall
CLASSIFIED on the surface of the stream.
INTO TWO
CATEGORIES:
Base Flow
the delayed flow
that reaches a stream
essentially as groundwater
flow.
 Direct Runoff
It is that part of the
runoff which enters the stream
immediately after the rainfall.
It includes surface runoff,
RUN – OFF IS prompt interflow and rainfall
CLASSIFIED on the surface of the stream.
INTO TWO
CATEGORIES:
Base Flow
the delayed flow
that reaches a stream
essentially as groundwater
flow.
NATURAL FLOW OR
VIRGIN FLOW Where: RN – Natural flow volume in time Δt
RO – Observed flow volume in time
Run-off representing the response of a catchment to Δt at the terminal site
precipitation reflects the integrated effects of a wide range of Vr – Volume of return flow from
catchment, climate and rainfall characteristics. irrigation, domestic water supply and
industrial use
The natural flow (Virgin Flow) volume in time Δt at a terminal Vd – Volume diverted out of the stream
point of a catchment is expressed by water balance equation as: for irrigation, domestic water supply
and industrial use
E – Net evaporation losses from
reservoirs on the stream
EX – Net export of water from the basin
ΔS – Change in the storage volumes of
water storage bodies on the stream
Sample Problem:
The following table gives values of measured discharges at a stream gauging site in a year. Upstream of the
gauging site a weir built across the stream diverts 3.0 Mm3 and 0.50 Mm3 of water per month for irrigation and for
use in an industry respectively. The return flows from the irrigation is estimated as 0.8 Mm3 and from the industry
at 0.30 Mm3 reaching the stream upstream of the gauging site. Estimate the natural flow. If the catchment area is
180 km2 and the average annual rainfall is 185 cm, determine the runoff-rainfall ratio.

Solution:

Using RN = (RO – Vr) + Vd + E + EX + ΔS

E, 𝐸𝑋, ΔS are assumed to be insignificant and zero value.
𝑉𝑟 = Volume of return flow from irrigation, domestic water supply and industrial use
= 0.80 + 0.30= 1.10 M𝑚3
𝑉𝑑 = Volume diverted out of the stream for irrigation, domestic water supply and
Industrial use
=3.0 + 0.5=3.5 M𝑚3
The calculation are shown in the following Table:

Annual natural flow volume=Annual runoff volume= 116.8 M𝑚3

Area o the catchment= 180 k𝑚3 = 1.80x103
Annual runoff depth=1.168x1081.80x108= 0.649 m = 64.9 cm
Annual rainfall = 185 cm
𝑅𝑢𝑛𝑜𝑓𝑓 𝑅𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 64.9185= 0.35
HYDROGRAPH
The quantity of water discharged in surface streams. It
includes not only the waters that travel over the land surface
and through channels to reach a stream but also interflow,
the water that infiltrates the soil surface and travels by
means of gravity toward a stream channel and eventually
empties into the channel.
HYDROGRAPH ANALYSIS
• A hydrograph is a continuous plot of instantaneous discharge
v/s time. It results from a combination of physiographic and
meteorological conditions in a watershed and represents the
integrated effects of climate, hydrologic losses, surface runoff,
interflow, and ground water flow.

• Detailed analysis of hydrographs is usually important in flood

damage mitigation, flood forecasting, or establishing design
flows for structures that convey floodwaters.
HYDROGRAPH RELATIONS
The typical hydrograph is characterized by:
1. Rising limb - known as concentration curve represents the increase in discharge
due to the gradual building up of storage in channels and over the catchment
surface.
2. Crest - one of the most important parts of a hydrograph as it contains the peak
flow.
3. Falling limb - extends from point of inflection at the crest segment to the
commencement of the natural groundwater flow represents the withdrawal of
water from the storage built up in the basin during the earlier phases of the
hydrograph.
FACTORS AFFECTING FLOOD HYDROGRAPH
BASE FLOW SEPARATION METHOD

There are three types of base flow separation techniques:

1. Straight line method - the separation of the base flow is achieved by
joining with a straight line the beginning of the surface runoff to a point
on the recession limb representing the end of the direct runoff.
The empirical equation for the time interval N9 (days) from the peak to
the point is: N=0.83𝐴0.2
Where:
A=drainage area in km2
N=days
Point A and B are joined by a straight line to demarcate to the base
flow and surface runoff.

This method of base-flow separation is the simplest of all the three

methods.
 BASE FLOW SEPARATION METHOD

2. Fixed base method - the base flow curve existing prior to the commencement of
the surface runoff is extended till it intersects the ordinate drawn at the peak. This is
probably the most widely used base-flow separation procedure.
This point is joined to point B y a straight line. Segment AC and C demarcate
the base flow and surface runoff.

3. Constant slope method - the base flow recession curve after the depletion of the
flood water is extended backwards till it intersects the ordinate at the point of
inflection.
Point A and F are joined by an arbitrary smooth curve. The three methods of
base-flow separation are rather arbitrary.
The surface runoff hydrograph obtained after base-flow separation is also
known as direct runoff hydrograph (DRH).
Effective rainfall (excess rainfall)(ER)- part of the rainfall that becomes
direct runoff at the outlet of the watershed. The total rainfall in a given
duration from which abstractions such as infiltration and initial losses are
subtracted. ER could be defined as that rainfall that is neither retained on the
land surface nor infiltrated into the soil.
The resulting hyetograph is known as effective rainfall hyetograph (ERH). It
is also known as excess rainfall hyetograph.
 Sample Problem:
Rainfall of magnitude 3.8 cm and 2.8 cm occurring on two consecutive 4-h durations on a catchment of
area 27 km2 produced the following hydrograph of flow at the outlet of the catchment. Estimate the
rainfall excess and φ index.

Solution:
Base flow separation:
Using Simple straight line method,
N = 0.83 A0.2 = 0.83 (27)0.2 = 1.6 days = 38.5 h
However, y inspection, DHR starts at t=0, has the peak at t=12h and ends at t=48h (N=48-12=36). As
N=36h appears to be more satisfactory than N=38.5h, in the present case DRH is assumed to exist from t=0
to 48h. A straight line base flow separation gives a constant value of 5 𝑚3 /s for the base flow.
 Sample Problem:
Rainfall of magnitude 3.8 cm and 2.8 cm occurring on two consecutive 4-h durations on a catchment of
area 27 km2 produced the following hydrograph of flow at the outlet of the catchment. Estimate the
rainfall excess and φ index.

Area of DRH=(6x60x60) [8) + (8+ 21) + 21 + 16) + 16 +

11) + (11 + 7)+ 7 + 4) + (4 + 2)
+ (2)]
= 3600x6x(8+21+16+11+7+4+2)
= 1.4904 x 106 m3 =Total direct runoff due to storm
Runoff depth = runoff volume catchment area
= 1.4904 x 106 27 𝑥10 = 0.0552 m =5.52 cm = rainfall
excess
Total rainfall =3.8 +2.8= 6.6 cm
Duration= 8h
φindex= = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟑𝟓 𝐜𝐦/h
UNIT HYDROGRAPH
 It was the first suggested by Sherman in 1932 and has undergone many
refinements since then.
 the unit pulse response function of a linear hydrologic system.
 defined as the hydrograph of direct runoff resulting from one unit depth
(1 cm) of rainfall excess occurring uniformly over the basin and at uniform
rate for a specified duration (D hours).
 Sherman originally used the word “unit” to denote a unit of time. But
since that time it has often been interpreted as a unit depth of excess
rainfall.
 Sherman classified runoff into surface runoff and groundwater runoff and
defined the unit hydrograph for use only with surface runoff.
 It was the first suggested by Sherman in 1932 and has undergone many
refinements since then.
 the unit pulse response function of a linear hydrologic system.
 defined as the hydrograph of direct runoff resulting from one unit depth
(1 cm) of rainfall excess occurring uniformly over the basin and at uniform
rate for a specified duration (D hours).
 Sherman originally used the word “unit” to denote a unit of time. But
since that time it has often been interpreted as a unit depth of excess
rainfall.
 Sherman classified runoff into surface runoff and groundwater runoff and
defined the unit hydrograph for use only with surface runoff.
The unit hydrograph is a simple linear model that can be used to derive the
hydrograph resulting from any amount of excess rainfall.
The following basic assumptions are inherent in this model :
 Rainfall excess of equal duration are assumed to produce hydrographs with
equivalent time bases regardless of the intensity of the rain.
 Direct runoff ordinates for a storm of given duration are assumed directly
proportional to rainfall excess volumes.
 The time distribution of direct runoff is assumed independent of antecedent
precipitation.
 Rainfall distribution is assumed to be the same for all storms of equal duration,
both spatially and temporally.
Terminologies:
 Duration of effective rainfall - the time from start to finish of effective rainfall
 Lag time (L or tp ) - the time from the center of mass of rainfall excess to the
peak of the hydrograph.
 Time of rise (TR ) - the time from the start of rainfall excess to the peak of the
hydrograph
 Time base (Tb ) - the total duration of the DRO hydrograph
Terminologies:
 Duration of effective rainfall - the time from start to finish of effective
rainfall
 Lag time (L or tp ) - the time from the center of mass of rainfall excess
to the peak of the hydrograph.
 Time of rise (TR ) - the time from the start of rainfall excess to the peak
of the hydrograph
 Time base (Tb ) - the total duration of the DRO hydrograph
Two basic assumptions constitute the foundations for the unit-hydrology theory.
1. The Time Invariance
The direct-runoff response to a given effective rainfall in a catchment. This
implies that the DRH for a given ER in a catchment is always the same irrespective
of when it occurs.
2. The Linear Response
The direct-runoff response to the rainfall excess is assumed to be linear. This is
the most important assumption of the unit-hydrograph theory.
RATIONAL METHOD IN ESTIMATING RUN-OFF

Where:
Q = peak flow (cfs)
= run-off coefficient adjustment factor
C = run-off coefficient
i = rainfall intensity (m/s)
A = drainage area ()
RATIONAL METHOD IN ESTIMATING RUN-OFF

For ununiformed area:

ASSUMPTIONS AND LIMITATIONS

 Applies to small urban watersheds with drainage areas not larger than 200 acres
(80.94 hectares)
 The peak flow is assumed to occur when the entire watershed is contributing run-
off.
 The rainfall intensity is assumed to be uniform over time duration.
 The peak flow recurrence interval is assumed to be equal to the rainfall intensity
recurrence interval. In other words, the 10-year rainfall intensity is assumed to
produce the 10-year flood.
 Sample Problem:
• A small urban watershed has an area of 70 hectares and is generally composed of flat and light industrial areas.
Calculate the peak runoff equivalent to a 25-year return period at its outlet if the observed rainfall intensity is 5
mm/hr.

• Given:

• A=
• i=
• = 0.50
• C = 1.1
• Solution:

• Q = (1.1) (0.50) () ()
• Q = 0.53
 ESTIMATION OF DISCHARGE
USING UNIT HYDROGRAPH

How to get a unit hydrograph, UH

 Remove the base flow amount from the hydrograph.
 Calculate the net rainfall by removing the infiltration and retention storage from
the hyetograph.
 Scale the new hydrograph units to yield a unit hydrograph for, say, 1 inch for 1
hour, or ½ in/hr for 2 hours, or 1/3 in/hr for 3hr, etc.
ESTIMATION OF DISCHARGE
USING UNIT HYDROGRAPH
 SYNDER’S METHOD

Synder’s method allows the computations of:

 Lag time
 UH duration
 UH peak discharge
 Time base ()
 Hydrograph time width at 50% and 75% of peak flow
 SYNDER’S METHOD

1. Lag time – time from the center of rainfall-excess to the UH peak

Where:
= time (hr)
= 0.75 for SI unit, 1.0 for English unit
= coefficient which is a function of watershed slope and shape, 1.8 – 2.2 (for steeper
slope, is smaller)
L = length of the main channel (Mi,Km)
= length along the main channel to the point nearest to the watershed centroid.
 SYNDER’S METHOD

2. UH duration

Where are in hours. If the duration of UH is other than , then the lag time
needs to be adjusted as

Where = adjusted lag time, = desired UH duration.

 SYNDER’S METHOD

3. UH peak discharge
or
Where:
= 2.75 for SI unit, 640 for English unit
= coefficient accounting for flood wave and storage condition, 0.4 – 0.8
= specific discharge, () or ()
To compute actual discharge:
 SYNDER’S METHOD

4. Time base ()
Assuming triangular UH,

Where,
= in hrs
= 5.56 for SI unit, 1290 for English unit
 SYNDER’S METHOD

5. UH widths
or
Where
= 1.22 for SI unit, 440 for English unit
= 2.14 for SI unit, 770 for English unit
are in hours. Usually 1/3 of the width is distributed before UH peak and 2/3 after the
peak
Remember to check that the volume of Uh is close to 1 cm or 1 inch
Sample Problem:
 SCS CURVE METHOD

 The method is based on the simple relationship that Pe = P - Fa – Ia

 Soil conservation service (SCS) method is an experimentally derived method to
determine rainfall excess using information about soils, vegetative cover,
hydrologic condition and antecedent moisture conditions .

Pe is runoff depth, P is precipitation

depth,
Fa is continuing abstraction,
and Ia is the sum of initial losses
(depression storage, interception,
ET)
NOTE: SCS CURVE NUMBERS DEPEND ON SOIL CONDITIONS
Hydrologic Soil Group in Brushy Creek
 Time of Concentration

 Different areas of a watershed contribute to

runoff at different times after precipitation
begins
 Time of concentration
- Time at which all parts of the watershed begin
contributing to the runoff from the basin
- Time of flow from the farthest point in the
watershed