BASICS OF CIVIL

ENGINEERING
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION AND CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS

Building materials
• Stone
• Brick
• Cement
STONE

Stones are naturally occurring building materials which is widely used in

construction of buildings. Nowadays it has become an important source of
aggregate (coarse & fine) for manufacturing concrete. These are permanent in
nature and prices go up if you change the shape and texture of stone. Stones are
obtained from rocks and rock represent a definite portion of earth surface which
has no definite chemical composition and shape.
CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS
Stones used for civil engineering works can be classified in the following three
ways:
• Geological Classification
• Physical Classification
• Chemical Classification
Geological Classification
Based on their origin of formation stones are classified into three main groups:
1. Igneous rocks - The molten or pasty rock material is known as the magma
occasionally tries to come out to the earth’s surface through cracks or weak
portions. The rocks which are formed by cooling of magma are known as the
igneous rocks.
Eg: Plutonic rocks, hypabyssal rocks and volcanic rocks.
2. Sedimentary Rocks - These rocks are formed by the deposition of products of
weathering on the pre-existing rocks. All the products of weathering are ultimately
carried away from their place of origin by the agents of transport. Such agents are
frost, rain, wind, flowing water etc.
3. Metamorphic Rocks - These rocks are formed by the change in character of the
pre-existing rocks. The igneous as well as sedimentary rocks are changed in
character when they are subjected to great heat and pressure. The process of change
is known as the metamorphism.
Physical Classification
Based on the structure, the rocks may be classified as:
1. Stratified Rocks: These rocks are having layered structure. They possess planes
of Stratification or cleavage. They can be easily split along these planes. Sand
stones, lime stones, slate etc. are the examples of this class of stones.
2. Unstratified Rocks: These rocks are not stratified. They possess crystalline and
compact grains. They cannot be split in to thin slab. Granite, trap, marble etc. are
the examples of this type of rocks.
3. Foliated Rocks: These rocks have a tendency to split along a definite direction
only. The direction need not be parallel to each other as in case of stratified rocks.
Chemical Classification
On the basis of their chemical composition rocks can be classified as:
1. Silicious rocks: The main content of these rocks is silica. They are hard and
durable. Examples of such rocks are granite, trap, sand stones etc.
2. Argillaceous rocks: The main constituent of these rocks is argil i.e., clay. These
stones are hard and durable but they are brittle. They cannot withstand shock.
Slates and laterites are examples of this type of rocks.
3. Calcareous rocks: The main constituent of these rocks is calcium carbonate.
Limestone is a calcareous rock of sedimentary origin while marble is a
calcareous rock of metamorphic origin.
BRICKS
Bricks are the most commonly used construction material. Bricks are prepared by
moulding clay in rectangular blocks of uniform size and then drying and burning these
blocks.
Constituents of brick earth :
• Silica - Brick earth should contain about 50% of silica. It is responsible for
preventing cracking, shrinking and warping of raw bricks. It also affects the
durability of bricks. If present in excess, then it destroys the cohesion between
particles and the brick becomes brittle.
• Alumina - Good brick earth should contain about 20% to 30% of alumina. It is
responsible for plasticity characteristic of earth, which is important in moulding
operation. If present in excess, then the raw brick shrink and warp during drying.
• Lime - The percentage of lime should be in the range of 5% to 10% in good brick
earth. It prevents shrinkage of bricks on drying. It causes silica in clay to melt on
burning and thus helps to bind it. Excess of lime causes the brick to melt and brick
loses its shape.
• Iron oxide - A good brick earth should contain about 5% to 7% of iron oxide. It
gives red colour to the bricks. It gives strength and hardness. If present in excess,
then the colour of brick becomes dark blue or blakish. If the quantity of iron oxide
is comparatively less, the brick becomes yellowish in colour.
• Magnesia - Good brick earth should contain less a small quantity of magnesia
about 1%. Magnesium in brick earth imparts yellow tint to the brick. It is
responsible for reducing shrinkage. Excess of magnesia leads to the decay of
bricks.
Standard size of brick – 19x9x9cm or 190x90x90mm
CEMENT
Cement is a fine, soft powder used as a binder because it hardens after contact with
water.
When water is added to cement and mixed properly the chemical reaction soon
starts and cement paste remain plastic for a short period. During this period, it is
possible to remix the paste and this period is called initial setting time.
Initial setting time of cement should not be less than 30 minutes.
Final setting time should not be more than 10 hours.
Apparatus used for testing the setting time of cement – Vicat apparatus
Specific gravity of cement = 3.15
Constituents of cement –
• Lime [60 - 65 % ] – chief chemical constituent of cement, deficiency reduces
strength and soundness, excess of lime causes unsound.
• Silica [17 - 25 %] – Excess of silica increases the strength and setting time of
cement.
• Alumina [3 - 8%] – Imparts quick setting property to cement. Excess of alumina
reduces the strength.
• Gypsum [3 - 4%] – Increases the initial setting time of cement. Excess gypsum
makes cement unsound.
• Iron oxide [3%] – gives colour, hardness and strength to cement
• Magnesia [2%] – also imparts colour and hardness
Soundness test of cement is done using Le Chatelier apparatus
TIMBER

• Wood suitable for building or other engineering purposes is called timber.

• Timber is a building material which possess number of valuable properties such as low
heat conductivity, high strength, small bulk density etc.

• At the same time, it has disadvantages such as decay, changes in properties due to
moisture content, inflammability etc.

• When it forms part of a living tree it is called standing timber.

• When the tree has been felled it is called rough timber.

• When it has been sawn to various market forms such as beams, battens and planks etc. it
is called converted timber.
Structure of timber:
Structure of timber can be classified into macro structure and micro structure.
Macro structure

Cross-section of an Exogenous tree

• Pith : The first formed portion of the stem of tree. It is the innermost central portion that
contains the entire cellular tissue is called the pith or medulla.
• Annular ring : The rings of woody fibre arranged in concentric circle around the pith are
known as annular rings. Indicates the age of timber.
• Hearth wood : The inner part of the tree surrounding the pith is called Heart Wood. It
imparts rigidity to tree and provides strong and durable timber for various
engineering purposes. Indicates dead portion of tree and does not take active part in
the growth of tree. Usually dark in colour.
• Sap wood : It is the area between the heart wood and cambium layer. Sap wood
contains living cells and takes active part in growth of tree. Usually it is light in color
and weight.
• Cambium layer : The thin layer between the bark and sapwood is termed as cambium
layer. This layer contains sap which is yet to be converted into sapwood or it is the
reproductive layer that results in new tissue formation.
• Medullary ray : Thin radial fibres extending from pith to cambium layer are known
as medullary rays. It is used to hold the annual rings tightly together and also to carry
sap from outermost to the inner part of the tree.
• Bark : The bark or cortex is the outermost cover or skin of the tree. It is further
divided into the inner bark and outer bark. The layer covering the cambium layer is
called inner bark. The outer skin which is the protective layer of the tree is called
bark or cortex. Bark insulates the tree against temperature exposure and saves the
sapwood from drying out.