Development of Eye

D. Chikwanda
• visual system consists of eyeball, eyelids, extraocular muscles of eyeball and
lacrimal apparatus
• The eye develops from four sources:
• 1. Neuroectoderm of forebrain
• 2. Surface ectoderm of head
• 3. Mesoderm between neuroectoderm of forebrain and surface ectoderm of
head
• 4. Neural crest cells
• The neuroectoderm of forebrain forms retina, posterior layers of iris, and optic
nerve
• The surface ectoderm of the head forms lens of the eye and corneal
epithelium (epithelium covering the superficial surface of the cornea)
• The mesoderm between the neuroectoderm of forebrain and surface
ectoderm of the head forms fibrous and vascular coats of the eye
• The neural crest cells migrate into mesenchyme from the neural crests and
form choroid, sclera, and corneal epithelium
• Optic Cup and Lens Vesicle
• development of eye begins on day 22
• first, a pair of shallow groove or sulcus appears on either side in the forebrain
• is called optic groove/sulcus
• optic sulcus invaginates the surrounding mesenchyme to form optic vesicle
• optic vesicle grows laterally
• Its distal part expands to form optic vesicle;
• its proximal part connected to the forebrain constricts to form optic stalk
• optic vesicle comes in contact with the surface ectoderm, it induces it to
thicken
• forms lens placode—the primordium of lens
• lens placode gets depressed below the surface to form lens pit
• As the lens pit deepens its edges approach each other
• fuse to form spherical lens vesicle
• is soon cut off from the surface ectoderm
• As the lens vesicle is being formed, optic vesicle begins to invaginate to form
double-layered optic cup
• margins of the optic cup grow and enclose the lens vesicle, i.e., lens vesicle
enters into the optic cup
• a fissure called choroidal fissure develops on the inferior aspect of the optic
cup and the optic stalk
• vascular mesoderm enters into the choroidal fissure and gets trapped in the
optic vesicle and optic stalk
• The choroid fissure is closed
• This vascular mesoderm within it forms hyaloid vessels (hyaloid artery and
hyaloid vein),
• which supply to the layers of the optic cup, mesoderm in the optic cup, and
lens vesicle
• distal parts of hyaloid vessels eventually degenerate whereas their proximal
parts persist as central artery and vein of retina
• Development of Various Parts of Eyeball
• Retina
• develops from walls of the optic cup
• Outer thin layer of the optic cup forms pigment layer of the retina
• Inner thick layer of the optic cup forms neural layer of the retina
• cells of the neural layer
• proliferate to form various cells of retina, i.e., photoreceptor cells (rods and
cones), bipolar cells, and ganglionic cells
• rods and cones are modified neurons
• axons of ganglionic cells form nerve fiber layer, which passes through the optic
stalk and forms optic nerve
• During embryonic and early fetal periods, the pigment and neural layers of the
retina are separated from each other by an intraretinal space
• Representing the original cavity of the optic cup
• Before birth the space between the inner and outer layers of the optic cup is
obliterated with the proliferation of cells of the inner layer
• result, the rod and cone cells come in contact with pigment layer of the retina
• Optic Nerve
• optic stalk contains choroid fissure, which contains hyaloid vessels
• hyaloid vessels later become central artery and vein of retina
• optic stalk contains nerve fibers derived from ganglionic cells of the retina
• The choroid fissure closes in week 7
• As a result, the optic stalk along with axons of ganglionic cells forms the optic
nerve
• optic nerve is a tract of diencephalon and not a peripheral nerve because:
• 1. It is myelinated by oligodendrocytes in the third month
• 2. It is not capable of regeneration after transaction
• 3. It is surrounded by meninges and subarachnoid space filled with
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
• Lens
• develops from the lens vesicle—a derivative of surface ectoderm
• Initially the lens vesicle is lined by a single layer of cuboidal cells
• cells of anterior wall of the vesicle remain cuboidal
• cells of posterior wall of the lens vesicle elongate, become columnar, and
extend into the cavity of lens vesicle
• As a result, the cavity of lens vesicle is obliterated
• elongated cells of posterior wall of the lens vesicle further elongate
considerably and lose their nuclei to form highly transparent primary lens
fibers
• lens grows because new lens fibers (secondary lens fibers) are added to it by
cells in the equatorial zone of lens
• cells of anterior layer persist as epithelium
• secondary lens fibers continue to form during childhood and lens increases in
its diameter
• primary lens fibers become old and harder
• At first the lens is supplied by hyaloid artery—a branch of the ophthalmic artery
• Later on distal part of hyaloid artery disappears, and blood supply to the lens is
stopped
• lens becomes an avascular structure
• Sclera and Choroid
• mesoderm around the optic cup differentiates into two layers:
• (a) an inner vascular layer that forms choroid
• (b) an outer fibrous layer that forms sclera
• anteriorly the sclera is continuous with substantia propria of the cornea
• posteriorly it is continuous with the dura mater surrounding the optic nerve
• choroid is continuous anteriorly on each side with ciliary body
• posteriorly it is continuous with pia-arachnoid around the optic nerve
• Ciliary Body
• is a wedge-shaped extension of the choroid anteriorly
• formed by the mesoderm around the anterior part of the optic cup
• ciliary muscle and connective tissue of the ciliary body are derived from
mesoderm
• pigment epithelium lining inner aspect of the ciliary body, including the ciliary
processes is derived from the outer layer of the optic cup
• is continuous with the retinal pigment epithelium
• nonpigmented epithelial layer of the ciliary body is derived from the inner layer
of the optic cup
• there are two layers of the ciliary epithelium
• ciliary epithelium over the ciliary processes becomes secretory and secretes the
aqueous humour
• nonpigmented ciliary epithelium represents anterior prolongation of the neural
layer of the retina
• Iris
• develops from the rim of optic cup (i.e., anterior extension of two layers of the
optic cup)
• Which grows inward and partially covers the lens
• epithelium of iris is derived from both layers of the optic cup
• It is continuous posteriorly with the doublelayered epithelium of the ciliary
body
• Neuroectodermal cells of the optic cup give rise to muscles of the iris
(sphincter and dilator pupillae)
• Two layers of epithelium of the iris constitute iridial part of the retina
• vascular connective tissue of the iris is derived from mesoderm located anterior
to the optic cup
• anterior extension from the rim of the optic cup, which forms iris, does not
extend up to the center
• results almost circular gap remains in the center of the iris—the pupil
• Cornea
• development of cornea is induced by the lens vesicle
• is derived from following sources:
• 1. Outer stratified squamous epithelium is derived from the surface ectoderm
• 2. Lamina propria of the cornea is derived from the mesoderm.
• It is continuous with sclera
• 3. Inner corneal epithelium is derived from the neural crest cells
• Anterior and Posterior Chambers of the Eye
• mesoderm located between developing iris and cornea splits to form a space
called the anterior chamber
• mesoderm anterior to this space forms substantia propria of the cornea and
mesothelium of the anterior chamber
• mesoderm located between the developing iris and lens splits to form a space
called the posterior chamber
• the pupillary membrane disappears then the pupil forms a communication
between the anterior and posterior chambers of the eye
• anterior and posterior chambers are filled by aqueous humour secreted by
ciliary processes of the ciliary body
• aqueous humor is drained by sinus venosus sclerae (a circumferential scleral
venous sinus encircling the anterior chamber)
• Vitreous Body (Vitreous Humour)
• At first the vitreous humour is formed by neural crest mesoderm present in the
optic cup
• is called primary vitreous humour
• Later on it is replaced by gelatinous
• secondary vitreous humour derived mainly from the inner layer of the optic
cup and a little bit from the lens vesicle
• Vitreous body is made up of a vascular mass of transparent gel-like
intracellular substance
• Contains hyaloid artery that later obliterates to form a hyaloid canal of adult
eye
• Accessory Structures of the Eyeball
• The accessory structures of the eyeball include: -
• eyelids, conjunctival sac, lacrimal gland, lacrimal sac, and nasolacrimal duct
• Eyelids
• upper and lower eyelids develop from reduplication of surface ectoderm above
and below the cornea
• ectodermal folds contain a core of mesoderm
• As the upper and lower folds grow, they approach and fuse with each other
• enclose a space between them and cornea called conjunctival sac
• conjunctival sac is of ectodermal origin and lined by ectoderm
• eyelids remain fused with each other till the beginning of 10th week
• remain adhered to each other until 28th week (seventh month) of IUL
• Thereafter the eyelids get separated from each other to form the upper and
lower eyelids
• central core of the mesoderm in the ectodermal folds (developing eyelids)
forms tarsal plate and connective tissue of the eyelids
• eyelashes and glands in the eyelids develop from surface ectoderm covering
the eyelids
• Lacrimal Glands
• develops from 15 to 20 buds that grow from the superolateral angle of the
conjunctival sac
• buds elongate and get canalized to form the ducts
• secretory acini develop at the ends of these ducts
• ducts of lacrimal gland therefore open in the conjunctival sac
• Lacrimal Sac and Nasolacrimal Duct
• develop from the ectoderm of nasolacrimal/naso-optic groove present along
the line of fusion of maxillary and lateral nasal processes
• lacrimal canaliculi develop from canalization of the ectodermal buds that
grow from the margin of each eyelid near their medial ends to the lacrimal
sacs
• Clinical Correlation
• 1. Retinal detachment:
• There is a separation of pigment epithelium from the neural layer of the
retina
• may be congenital or can occur because of a blow to the eye
• can bey explained embryologically because during development the two
layers of the retina are separated by a space called the intraretinal space,
which later on gets obliterated
• integrity of the retina depends upon the pressure of the vitreous humour in
adults
• which keeps the two layers of the retina adhered to each other
• If a hole or tear occurs in retina, then the fluid may accumulate between the
pigment and neural layers of the retina and may separate these layers
• 2. Papilledema:
• The optic nerve is surrounded by three meninges that were invaginated by
developing optic vesicle and stalk
• it is surrounded by subarachnoid space (filled with CSF), which is continuous
with the subarachnoid space around the brain
• increase in CSF pressure due to increased intracranial pressure hampers the
venous return from retina
• result, fluid accumulates in optic disc leading to its swelling (papilledema)
• occurs because the retinal vessels are covered by pia mater
• lie in the subarachnoid space that surrounds the optic nerve
• Cataracts
• The cataract is opacity of the lens
• It may be congenital or acquired
• 1. Congenital cataracts:
• The congenital cataracts are opacities of the lens since birth
• They are usually bilateral
• caused by rubella virus, toxoplasmosis, Down’s syndrome (trisomy 21), or
galactosemia (an inborn error of metabolism due to enzymatic deficiency)
• 2. Acquired cataract:
• occur due to ageing
• In old age central part of the lens becomes harder than peripheral part
• Old primary lens fibers complete their lifetime and degenerate
• result, there is accumulation of a special set of proteins called crystalline
within the lens, which causes opacity of the lens
• Colour of the iris:
• The color of the iris depends upon concentration and distribution of pigment-
containing cells (chromatophores) in the iris
• When melanin pigment is confined to the pigment epithelium on the posterior
surface of the iris, then the iris appears blue
• when the melanin is also distributed in the stroma of the iris then the eye
appears brown
• Congenital anomalies of the eye
• 1. Anophthalmia (absence of an eye): It occurs when the optic vesicle fails to
form
• 2. Microphthalmia (a small eye): It occurs when the optic vesicle is small or
there is underdevelopment of eye
• The lens is usually not formed
• The microphthalmia is usually associated with intrauterine infections from
toxoplasma, rubella virus, cytomegalovirus, and herpes simplex virus group of
organisms
• 3. Cyclopia (single eye):
• The cyclopia is severely uncommon anomaly of the face
• There develops a single median eye
• The nose is usually absent at the normal site but may be represented by a
tubular appendage called proboscis above the median eye
• The cyclopia is transmitted by recessive inheritance
• The two eyes may fuse (synophthalmia) to form a single eye
• 4. Persistent pupillary membrane:
• The pupillary membrane may persist as a whole or it may persist in the form of
few strands of connective tissue
• It may obstruct the vision completely or partially
• 5. Coloboma of the iris :
• It is a congenital notch or cleft on the inferior aspect of the iris
• It occurs due to failure of choroid fissure to close
• 6. Congenital aniridia (complete absence of the iris):
• occurs from an arrest of development at the rim of the optic cup
• 7. Congenital glaucoma (buphthalmos):
• It is an increased intraocular pressure that results due to impaired drainage of
the aqueous humor
• following abnormal development of canal of the Schlemm or iridocorneal
filtration angle
• 8. Congenital aphakia (aphakia: absence of the lens of the eye):
• It occurs if lens placode fails to develop following failure of lens induction by
the optic vesicle
• 1. Anomalies of the eyelids
• (a) Coloboma of eyelid:
• A congenital condition in which part of the eyelid is missing
• Coloboma of eyelid usually occurs as a small notch in the upper eyelid
• The coloboma of inferior eyelid is rare
• (b) Entropion and ectropion:
• when the lid margins are turned inward then the condition is called entropion,
• when the lid margins are turned outwards then the condition is called ectropion
• (c) Congenital ptosis (drooping of the upper eyelid):
• It occurs if the levator palpebrae superioris muscle fails to develop
• it may be transmitted as an autosomal dominant trait
• (d) Epicanthus:
• It is the development of crescentic fold of skin that extends from upper eyelid
to canthus
• It is a normal feature in Mongolian races
• (e) Cryptophthalmos:
• It occurs due to congenital absence of the eyelids
• The eyeball is small and defective
• It is covered by the skin (i.e., absence of palpebral fissure between the eyelids)
• 2. Anomalies of the lacrimal apparatus
• (a) Lacrimal gland may be absent or nonfunctional.
• (b) Complete absence of lacrimal passages in whole, in part, or atresia of
some part
• (c) Supernumerary puncta or canaliculi
• (d) Presence of cysts in any part of the lacrimal apparatus, mostly close to the
lacrimal puncta