ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES

AND SUSTAINABILITY
By:
Dr. A. RAVIKRISHNAN,
M.Sc., M.Phil., M.Ed., Ph.D., MISTE., MILCS.,
Asst.Prof of Chemistry.
 Environmental Pollution
1.1 Introduction

 Environmental pollution may be defined as, “the unfavorable

alteration of our surroundings”.
 It changes the quality of air, water and land which interferes with the
health of humans and other life on earth.
 Pollution are of different kinds depending on the nature of pollutant
generated from different sources.

Examples
Industry, automobiles, thermal power plants, farming, nuclear
reactors, generate different types of pollutants causing pollution to air,
water bodies and land.
2.1.1 Types of Pollutants

1. Biodegradable pollutants:
 Biodegradable pollutants decompose rapidly by natural processes.

2. Non-degradable pollutants:
 Non-degradable pollutants do not decompose (or) decompose
slowly in the environment.
 The slowly decomposed materials are more dangerous because it is
more difficult to remove them.

2.1.2 Classification of Pollution

 The different kinds of pollution that affects the environment are,
 Air Pollution
 Water Pollution
 Soil Pollution and
 Noise Pollution
2.2 AIR POLLUTION

Definition

Air pollution may be defined as, “the presence of one (or) more
contaminants like dust, smoke, mist and odour in the atmosphere
which are injurious to human beings, plants and animals.”

 The rapid industrialization, fast urbanization, rapid growth in

population, drastic increase in vehicles on the roads and other activities
of human beings have disturbed the balance of natural atmosphere.

Composition of Atmospheric Air

 During several billion years of chemical and biological evolution,
the composition of the earth’s atmosphere has varied.
 Today, about 99% of the volume of air we inhale consists of two
gases: Nitrogen and Oxygen.
 Table 2.1 Composition of atmospheric air

Constituents %

Nitrogen 78

Oxygen 21

Argon (Ar) <1

CO 2 0.037

Water vapour Remaining

O 2 , He, NH Trace amount

2
2.2.1 Sources of Air Pollution
 The sources of air pollution are of two types

1. Natural sources
Examples:
Volcanic eruptions, forest fires, biological decay, pollen grains,
marshes, radioactive materials etc.

 These pollutants are caused by the natural sources.

2. Man-made (anthropogenic) activities

Examples:
Thermal power plants, vehicular emissions, fossil fuel burning,
agricultural activities etc.,
2.2.2 Classification of Air Pollutants
 Depending upon the form (origin) of pollutants present in the
environment, they are classified as
 Primary air pollutants.
 Secondary air pollutants.

1. Primary air pollutants

 Primary air pollutants are those emitted directly in the atmosphere
in harmful form.

Example CO, NO, SO 2 , etc.,

Indoor Air Pollutants

 Indoor air pollutants are primary air pollutants.
 The most important indoor air pollutant is radon gas.
Sources (causes) of indoor air pollutants
 Radon gas is emitted from the building materials like bricks,
concrete, tiles, etc., which are derived from soil containing radium.

 It is also present in natural gas and ground water and is emitted

indoors while using them.

 Burning of fuels in the kitchen, cigarette smoke, liberates the

pollutants like CO, SO 2 , formaldehyde, BAP (benzo-(a) pyrene).

2. Secondary air pollutants

 Some of the primary air pollutants may react with one another (or)
with the basic components of air to form new pollutants.

 They are called as secondary air pollutants.

2.2.3 Common air pollutants sources (causes) and their effects
 According to the World Health Organization (WHO), more than 1.1
billion people live in urban areas where outdoor air is unhealthy to
breathe.
 Some of the common air pollutants are described below.

Description
 It is a colourless, odourless gas that is poisonous to air-breathing
animals.
 It is formed during the incomplete combustion of carbon
containing fuels.
2C + O 2 −−−−−> 2CO

Human Sources (causes)

 Cigarette smoking, incomplete burning of fossil fuels.
 About 77% comes from motor vehicle exhaust.
Health Effects
 Reacts with heamoglobin in red blood cells and reduces the ability
of blood to bring oxygen to body cells and tissues, which causes
headaches and anemia.
 At high levels it causes coma, irreversible brain cell damage and
death.

Environmental Effects
 It increases the globe temperature.

2.Nitrogen dioxide ( NO 2)
Description
 It is a reddish-brown irritating gas that gives photochemical smog.
 In the atmosphere it can be converted into nitric acid ( HNO 3 ).

NO 2 + Moisture −−−−−> HNO 3

Human Sources (causes)
 Fossil fuel burning in motor vehicles (49%) and power industrial
plants (49%).

Health Effects
 Lung irritation and damage.

Environmental Effects
 Acid deposition of HNO 3 can damage trees, soils and aquatic
life in lakes, HNO 3 can corrode metals and eat away stone on
buildings, statues and monuments.

 NO can damage fabrics.

2
 3. Sulphur dioxide (SO2)
Description
 It is a colourless and irritating gas.
 It is formed mostly from the combustion of sulphur containing
fossil fuels such as coal and oil.
 In the atmosphere it can be converted to sulphuric acid (H 2 SO 4)
which is a major component of acid deposition.

Human Sources (causes)

 Coal burning in power plants (88%) and industrial processes (10%).

Health Effects
 Breathing problems for healthy people.

Environmental Effects
 Reduce visibility, acid deposition of H 2SO 4 can damage trees,
soils and aquatic life in lakes.
4. Suspended Particulate matter (SPM)

Description
 It includes variety of particles and droplets (aerosols).
 They can be suspended in atmosphere for short periods to long
periods.

Human Sources (causes)

 Burning coal in power and industrial plants (40%), burning diesel
and other fuels in vehicles (17%), agriculture, unpaved roads,
construction etc.,

Health Effects
 Nose and throat irritation, lung damage, bronchitis, asthma,
reproductive problems and cancer.
Environmental Effects
 Reduces visibility, acid deposition and H SO 4 droplets can
2
damage trees, soils and aquatic life in lakes.

4. Ozone (O )
3
Description
 Highly reactive irritating gas with an unpleasant odour that
forms in the troposphere.
 It is a major component of photochemical smog.

Human Sources (causes)

 Chemical reaction with volatile organic compounds (emitted
mostly by cars and industries) and nitrogen oxides.

Environmental Effect
 Moderates the climate.
6. Photochemical smog

Description
 The brownish smoke like appearance that frequently forms on clear,
sunny days over large cities with significant amounts of automobile
traffic.

Sources (causes)
 It is mainly due to chemical reactions among nitrogen oxides and
hydrocarbon by sunlight.

Health Effects
 Breathing problems, cough, eye, nose and throat irritation, heart
diseases, reduces resistance to colds and pneumonia.

Environmental Effects
 Ozone can damage plants and trees. Smog can reduce visibility.
7. Lead (pb)
Description
 Solid toxic metal and its compounds, emitted into the atmosphere
as particulate matter.

Human Sources (causes)

 Paint, smelters (metal refineries), lead manufacture, storage
batteries, leaded petrol.

Health Effects
 Accumulates in the body, brain and other nervous system damage
and mental retardation (especially in children); digestive and other
health problems, some
 lead-containing chemicals cause cancer in test animals.

Environmental Effect
 Can harm wild life.
8. Hydrocarbons ( aromatic and aliphatic)

Description
 Hydrocarbons especially lower hydrocarbons get accumulated
due to the decay of vegetable matter.

Human sources (causes)

 Agriculture, decay of plants, burning of wet logs.

Health Effects
 Carcinogenic.

Environmental effect
 It produces an oily film on the surface and do not as such causes
a serious problem until they react to form secondary pollutants.
 Ethylene causes plant damage even at low concentrations.
9. Chromium (Cr)

Description
 It is a solid toxic metal, emitted into the atmosphere as
particulate matter.

Human Sources (causes)

 Paint, smelters, chromium manufacture, chromium plating.

Health effects
 Perforation of nasal septum, chrome holes, gastro intestinal
ulcer, central nervous system disease and cancer.
2.2.4 Control (or) Preventive Measures of air pollution
 The atmosphere has several built-in self cleaning processes such as
dispersion, gravitational settling, flocculation, absorption, rain washout
and so on, to cleanse the atmosphere.

 In terms of a long range control of air pollution, control of

contaminants at their source is a more desirable and effective method
through preventive (or) control technologies.

1.Source control
 Since we know the substances that causes air pollution, the first
approach to its control will be through source reduction.

 Some actions that can be taken in this regard are as follows:

 Use only unleaded petrol.
 Use petroleum products and other fuels that have low sulphur
and ash content.
 Reduce the number of private vehicles on the road by developing
an efficient public-transport system and encouraging people to
walk (or) use cycles.

 Ensure that houses, schools, restaurants and places where

children play are not located on busy streets.

 Plant trees along busy streets because they remove particulates

and carbon monoxide, and absorb noise.

 Industries and waste disposal sites should be situated outside the

city centre preferably downwind of the city.

 Use catalytic converters to help control the emissions of carbon

monoxide and hydrocarbons.
II Control measures in industrial centre
 The emission rates should be restricted to permissible levels by
each and every industry.
 Incorporation of air pollution control equipments in the design
of the plant layout must be made mandatory.
 Continuous monitoring of the atmosphere for the pollutants
should be carried out to know the emission levels.

Equipments used to control air pollution

 Air pollution can be reduced by adopting the following
approaches.

 To ensure sufficient supply of oxygen to the combustion

chamber and adequate temperature so that the combustion is
complete, eliminating much of the smoke consisting of partly burnt
ashes and dust.
 To use mechanical devices such as scrubbers, cyclones, bag
houses and electro-static precipitators, reducing particulate
pollutants..

 The four figures (fig 2.1) are commonly used control methods for
removing particulates from the exhaust gases of electric power and
industrial plants.
All these methods retain hazardous materials that must be disposed
of safely.
 The wet scrubber can also reduce sulphurdioxide emissions.

 Chemical treatment to deal with factory fumes. The disposal of

the collected air pollutants is equally important for successful control
of air pollution.
Fig. 2.1 Control methods for removing particulates from exhaust gases
2.3 WATER POLLUTION

Definition
Water pollution may be defined as, “the alteration in physical,
chemical and biological characteristics of water which may cause
harmful effects on humans and aquatic life.”

 The pollutants include sewage, industrial chemicals and

effluents, oil and other wastes.
 Besides, chemicals from the air dissolved in rain water, and
fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides leached from the land also
pollute water.

2.3.1 Types, effects and sources (causes) of water pollution

 Water pollution is any chemical, biological (or) physical change
in water quality that has a harmful effect on living organisms (or)
makes water unsuitable for desired uses.
1. Infectious Agens
Example: Bacteria, viruses, protozoa and parasitic worms.

Human Sources (causes)

 Human and animals wastes.

Effects
 Variety of diseases.

2. Oxygen Demanding Wastes (Dissolved Oxygen)

Example: Organic wastes such as animal manure and plant debris that
can be decomposed by aerobic (oxygen-requiring) bacteria.

 This degradation consumes dissolved oxygen in water.

 Dissolved oxygen (DO) is the amount of oxygen dissolved in a given
quantity of water at a particular pressure and temperature.
 The saturated point of DO varies from 8-15 mg/lit.
Human Sources (causes)
 Sewage, animal feedlots, paper mills, and food processing facilities.

Effects
 Large populations of bacteria decomposing these wastes can degrade
water quality by depleting water of dissolved oxygen.
 This causes fish and other forms of oxygen-consuming aquatic life to
die.

3. Inorganic Chemical
Example: Water soluble inorganic chemicals.
 acids,
 compounds of toxic metals such as lead (Pb), arsenic (As) and
selenium (Se) and
 salts such as NaCl in ocean water and fluorides (F−) found in
some soils.
Human Sources (causes)
 Surface runoff, industrial effluents and household cleansers

Effects
 Can make fresh water unusable for drinking (or) irrigation.
 Causes skin cancers and neck damage.
 Damage the nervous system, liver and kidneys.
 Harm fish and other aquatic life.
 Lower crop yields.
 Accelerates corrosion of metals exposed to such water.

4. Organic Chemical

Examples Oil, gasoline, plastics, pesticides, cleaning solvents,

detergents.
Human Sources (causes)
 Industrial effluents, household cleansers, surface runoff from
farms.

Effects
 Can threaten human health by causing nervous system
damage and some cancers.
 Harm fish and wild life.

5. Plant Nutrients
-
Examples Water-soluble compounds containing nitrate ( NO 3 ),
phosphate (PO 3-
4 ) and ammonium (NH +
4 ) ions.

Human Sources (causes)

 Sewage, manure, and runoff of agricultural and urban
fertilizers.
Effects
 Can cause excessive growth of algae and other aquatic
plants, which die, decay, deplete dissolved oxygen in water
and kill the fish.
 Drinking water with excessive levels of nitrates lower the
oxygen carrying capacity of the blood and can kill urban
children and infants.

6. Sediment
Examples Soil, silt, etc.,

Human Sources (causes)

 Land erosion.

Effects
 Can reduce photosynthesis and cloud water.
 Disrupt aquatic food webs.
  Carry pesticides, bacteria, and other harmful substances.
 Settle out and destroy feeding and spawning rounds of fish.
 Clog and fill lakes, artificial reservoirs, stream channels and
harbours.

7. Radioactive Materials
Examples Radioactive isotopes of iodine, radon, uranium, cesium,
and thorium.

Human Sources (causes)

 Nuclear power plants, mining and processing of uranium and other
ores, nuclear weapons production and natural sources.

Effects
 Genetic mutations, birth defects, and certain cancers.
8. Heat (Thermal Pollution)
Example Excessive heat

Human Sources (causes)

 Water cooling of electric power plants and some types of industrial
plants.
 Almost half of all water withdrawn in United States each year is for
cooling electric power plants.

Effects
 Lowers dissolved oxygen levels and makes aquatic organisms
more vulnerable to disease, parasites and toxic chemicals.

 When a power plant first opens (or) shuts down for repair, fish and
other organisms adapted to a particular temperature range can be
killed by the abrupt change in water temperature known as thermal
shock.
9. Point and Non- point sources of water pollution
(i) Point Sources
 Point sources are discharged pollutants at specific locations
through pipes, ditches (or) sewers into bodies of surface water.

Examples: Includes factories, sewage treatment plants, abandoned

underground mines and oil tankers.

(ii) Non-point sources

 They are usually large land areas (or) air sheds that pollute water
by runoff, subsurface flow (or) deposition from the atmosphere.
 Location of which cannot be easily identified.

Examples Include acid deposition and runoff of chemicals into

surface water from croplands, livestock feedlots, logged forests,
urban street, lawn, golf courses and parking lots.
2.3.2 Characteristics (or) Testing of river water (waste water)
1 . Dissolved oxygen (DO)
 Dissolved oxygen (DO) is the amount of oxygen dissolved in a
given quantity of water at a particular pressure and temperature.

Significance of DO
 DO is vital for the support of fish and other aquatic life in river
water.
 It determines whether the biological changes are brought about
by aerobic (or) anaerobic micro-organisms.
 DO determinations serve as the means of control of river
pollution.
 A minimum level of DO (4 mg/lit) must be maintained in rivers
so as to support the aquatic life in a healthy condition.
 Thus, it is necessary to ensure that the treated water must have
atleast 4 mg/lit of DO before its disposal into river.
 2. Biochemical Oxtgen Demand (BOD)
 BOD is the amount of oxygen required for the biological
decomposition of organic matter present in the water.

Significance of BOD
 It is an important indication of the amount of organic
matter present in the river water.

 Since complete oxidation occurs in indefinite period, the

reaction period is taken as 5 days at 20°C. For all practical
purposes, it is written as BOD 5 .

 The rate of oxidation and demand depends on the amount

and type of organic matter present in river water.
 3. Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
 COD is the amount of oxygen required for chemical oxidation
of organic matter using some oxidising agent like K2 Cr 2O 7 and
KMnO4 .

Significance of COD
 It is carried out to determine the pollutional strength of river
water.
 It is rapid process and takes only 3 hours.

2.3.3 Control (or) Preventive measures (methods) of water

pollution
 The administration of water pollution control should be in the
hands of State (or) Central Government.
 Scientific techniques are necessary to be adopted for the
environmental control of catchment areas of rivers, ponds (or)
streams.
 The industrial plants should be based on recycling operations,
because it will not only stop the discharge of industrial wastes into
natural water sources but by products can be extracted from the wastes.

 Plants, trees and forests control pollution and they acts as natural air
conditioners.

 Forests in and around big cities and industrial establishments are

capable of reducing the sulphur dioxide and nitric oxide pollutants to a
greater extent from the atmosphere. Hence the national goal should be
“Conservation of Forests” and campaign should be “Plant more trees”.

 The global destruction of forests should be discouraged (or) atleast

minimized and afforestation should be encouraged because no one on
this earth will escape from the adverse effects of a balding earth.
 It is not advisable to discharge any type of waste, either treated,
partially treated (or) untreated, into streams, rivers, lakes, ponds and
reservoirs. The industries are expected to develop close-loop water
supply schemes and domestic sewage may be used for irrigation.

 Highly qualified and experienced persons should be consulted

from time to time for effective control of water pollution.

 Public awareness regarding adverse effects of water pollution is a

must. So there should be propaganda for water pollution control on
radios, TVs etc.,

 Suitable laws, standards and practices should be framed to regulate

the discharge of undesirable flow of water in water bodies and such
regulations should be modified from time to time in order to
accommodate the changing requirements and technological
advancements.
 Basic and applied research in public health engineering should
be encouraged.
 The possible reuse (or) recycle of treated sewage effluents and
industrial wastes should be emphasized and encouraged.

2.3.4 Waste Water (or) Sewage Treatment Objectives of waste

water treatment
 The main objectives of waste water treatment are
 to convert harmful compounds into harmless compounds.
 to eliminate the offensive smell.
 to remove the solid content of the sewage.
 to destroy the disease producing microorganisms.
Treatment Process
 The sewage (or) waste water treatment process involves the
following steps.
1. Pleliminary Treatment
 In this treatment, coarse solids and suspended impurities are
removed by passing the waste water through bar and mesh screens.

II Primary Treatment (or) Settling Process

 In this treatment, greater proportion of the suspended inorganic
and organic solids are removed from the liquid sewage by settling.

 In order to facilitate quick settling coagulants like alum, ferrous

sulphate are added.

 These produce large gelatinous precipitates, which entrap finely

divided organic matter and settle rapidly.

Al ( SO ) + 6H O −−−−−> 2Al(OH) ↓ + 3H SO .
2 4 3 2 3 2 4
III Secondary (or) Biological Treatment
 In this treatment, biodegradable organic impurities are removed by
aerobic bacteria.
 It removes upto 90% of the oxygen demanding wastes.
 This is done by trickling filter (or) activated sludge process.

(a) Trickling filter process

 It is a circular tank and is filled with either coarse (or) crushed
rock. Sewage is sprayed over this bed by means of slowly rotating
arms (Fig. 2.2).
 When sewage starts percolating downwards, microorganisms
present in the sewage grow on the surface of filtering media using
organic material of the sewage as food.
 After completion of aerobic oxidation the treated sewage is taken
to the settling tank and the sludge is removed.
 This process removes about 80-85% of BOD.
Fig. 2.2 Trickling filter
(b) Activated sludge process
 Activated sludge is biologically active sewage and it has a large
number of aerobic bacterias, which can easily oxidise the organic
impurities.
 The sewage effluent from primary treatment is mixed with the
required amount of activated sludge.
 Then the mixture is aerated in the aeration tank (Fig. 2.3).
 Under these condition, organic impurities of the sewage get
oxidised rapidly by the microorganisms.
 After aeration, the sewage is taken to the sedimentation tank.
 Sludges settle down in this tank, called activated sludge, a portion
of which is used for seeding fresh batch of the sewage.
 This process removes about 90-95% of BOD.
Fig. 2.3 Activated Sludge Process
IV Tertiary treatment
 After the secondary treatment, the sewage effluent has a lower BOD
(25 ppm), which can be removed by the tertiary treatment process.
 In the tertiary treatment, the effluent is introduced into a
flocculation tank, where lime is added to remove phosphates.
 From the flocculation tank the effluent is led to ammonia stripping
⊕
tower, where pH is maintained to 11 and the NH 4 is converted to
gaseous NH 3 .
 Then the effluent is allowed to pass through activated charcoal
column, where minute organic wastes are adsorbed by charcoal.
 Finally the effluent water is treated with disinfectant (chlorine).

V Disposal of sludge
 This is the last stage in the sewage treatment.
 Sludge formed from different steps can be disposed by
  dumping into low-lying areas.
 burning of sludge (incineration),
 dumping into the sea,
 using it as low grade fertilizers.
The flow sheet diagram of sewage treatment
Flow Chart
2.3.5 Specifications for Drinking Water

 The common specifications recommended by the U.S Public

Health for Drinking Water are given below.

 Water should be clear and odourless.

 It should be cool.

 It should be pleasant to taste.

 Turbidity of the water should not exceed 10 ppm.

 pH of the water should be in the range of 7.0 - 8.5.

 Chloride and sulphate contents should be less than 250 ppm.

 Total hardness of the water should be less than 500 ppm.

 Total dissolved solids should be less than 500 ppm.

 Fluoride content of the water should be less than 1.5 ppm.

 The water must be free from disease-producing bacteria.

 Water should be free from objectionable dissolved gases like

H2S.

 Water should be free from objectionable minerals such as lead,

chromium, manganese and arsenic salts.
2.3.6 Water Quality Standards
 Water used for drinking should have certain quality.
 The following table 2.2 summarises several quality criteria and
their standards for drinking water.

S. No. Parameter WHO standard in mgs ISI standard in mg

/litre s/litre.

1. Colour, Colourless, Colourless,

odour and taste. odourless and tastele odourless and taste
s less.
2. pH 6.9 6.9
3. Total dissolved 1,500 -
solids
 Dissolved - 3.0
4.
Oxygen
5. Chloride 250 600
6. Sulphate 400 1,000
7. Nitrate 45 -
8. Cyanide 0.2 0.01
9. Fluoride 1.5 3.0
10. Chromium 0.05 0.05
11. Lead 0.05 0.1
12. Arsenic 0.05 0.2
Significance of the parameters

1. Chlorides:
 Although chlorides are not considered as harmful as such, their
concentrations over 250 mg/lit impart peculiar taste to water,
which is unacceptable for drinking purposes.

2. Sulphates:
 When sulphates are present in excess amount in drinking water,
they may produce a cathartic effect on the people consuming such
water.

3. Nitrates:
 Excessive concentrations of nitrates are undesirable especially
for infants.
 The maximum contaminant level for nitrate is 10 mg/lit.
4. Fluorides:

 prescribed in drinking water is in the range of 0.7 to 1.2 mg/lit.

Low concentration of fluoride in drinking Optimum fluoride
concentrations water causes dental problem in children.

 Excessive concentration causes fluorosis (discoloration and

chipping of teeth).

5. Arsenic:

 Arsenic is a toxic heavy metal even a very small dose can result in
severe poisoning.

 Only 0.05 mg/lit has been recommended for arsenic in drinking

water.
2.4 SOIL POLLUTION

Definition
Soil pollution is defined as, “the contamination of soil by human
and natural activities which may cause harmful effects on living
beings.”

Table 2.3 Composition of soil

Components %
Mineral matter (inorganic) 45
Organic matter 5
Soil water 25
Soil air 25
2.4.1 Types, effects and sources (causes) of soil pollution
 Soil pollution mainly results from the following sources
 Industrial wastes.
 Urban wastes.
 Agricultural practices.
 Radioactive pollutants.
 Biological agents.

1. Industrial wastes
 Disposal of industrial wastes is the major problem for soil pollution.
Sources
The industrial pollutants are mainly discharged from the various
origins such as pulp and paper mills, chemical industries, oil refineries,
sugar factories, tanneries, textiles, steel, distilleries, fertilizers,
pesticides, coal and mineral mining industries, drugs, glass, cement,
petroleum and engineering industries etc.,
Effect
 These pollutants affect and alter the chemical and biological
properties of soil.
 As a result, hazardous chemicals can enter into human food chain
from the soil (or) water and disturb the biochemical process and finally
lead to serious effects on living organisms.
2. Urban wastes
 Urban wastes comprises both commercial and domestic wastes
consisting of dried sludge of sewage.
 All the urban solid wastes are commonly referred to as refuse.

Constituents of urban refuse

 This refuse contains garbage and rubbish materials like plastics,
glasses, metallic cans, fibres, paper, rubbers, street sweepings, fuel
residues, leaves, containers, abandoned vehicles and other discarded
manufactured products.
 Urban domestic wastes though disposed off separately from the
industrial wastes, can still be dangerous.
 This is so because they cannot be easily degraded.

3. Agricultural practices
 Modern agricultural practices pollute the soil to a large extent.
 Today with the advancing agro-technology, huge quantities of
fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides, weedicides are added to increase the
crop yield.
 Apart from these farm wastes, manure, slurry, debris, soil erosion
containing mostly inorganic chemicals are reported to cause soil
pollution.

4. Radioactive pollutants
 Radioactive substances resulting from explosions of nuclear dust
and radioactive wastes (produced by nuclear testing laboratories and
industries) penetrate the soil and accumulate there by creating land
pollution.
Examples
 Radio nuclides of radium, thorium, uranium, isotopes of
potassium (K-40) and carbon (C-14) are very common in soil,
rock, water and air.

 Explosion of hydrogen weapons and cosmic radiations

induce neutron, proton reactions by which nitrogen (N-15)
14
produces C-14. This C participates in the carbon metabolism
of plants which is then introduced into animals and man.

 Radioactive waste contains several radio nuclides such as

Strontium-90, Iodine-129, Cesium-137 and isotopes of iron
which are most injurious. Sr-90 gets deposited in bones and
tissues instead of calcium.
 Nuclear reactor produces waste containing Ruthenium-106,
Iodine-131, Barium-140 and Lanthanum-140, Cesium-144 along
with the primary nuclides Sr-90 and Cs-137 has a half life of 30
years while Sr-90 has 28 years. Rain water carries Sr-90 and Cs-137
to be deposited on the soil where they are held firmly with the soil
particles by electrostatic forces. All these radio nuclides deposited on
the soil emit gamma radiations.

5. Biological agents
 Soil gets large quantities of human, animal and bird’s excreta
which constitute the major source of land pollution by biological
agents.
Examples
 Heavy application of manures and digested sludges could cause
serious damage to plants within a few years. Because the sludges are
containing more live viruses and viable intestinal worms.
 In addition to these excreta, faulty sanitation, municipal garbage,
waste water and wrong methods of agricultural practices also induce
heavy soil pollution.

Table 2.4 Major physico-chemical characteristics of untreated wastes of

Organic chemical industries in Soil

S. Industry Physico-chemical
No. characteristics
1. Pulp and Paper Suspended solids, high (or)
low pH, colour, fibres,
BOD, COD, high
temperature, fibres.
2. Rubber Chlorides, suspended and
Industry dissolved solids, variable
pH and high BOD.
3. Oil refineries Acids, alkalis, phenols, resinous materials
and petroleum oils.
4. Antibiotics Toxic organics and high acidity (or)
alkalinity.
5. Synthetic dru High suspended and dissolved
gs organic matter including vitamins.
6. Distillery Very high COD, low pH, high organic
matter, high suspended and dissolved solids
containing nitrogen, high potassium.
7. Organic che Toxic compounds, phenols, high acidity, al
mical industy kalinity.
Table 2.5 Major physico-chemical characteristics of untreated
wastes of Inorganic chemical industries in Soil

S. Industry Physico-chemical characteristics No.

1. Thermal Power P Heat, heavy metals, dissolved solids
lants and inorganic compounds.
2. Steel Mills Acids, phenols, low pH, alkali, limeston
e, oils, fine suspended solids, cyanides,
cyanates, iron salts, ores and coke.
3. Cotton Industry Sodium, organic matter, colour, high p
H and fibres.
4. Metal Plating Metallics, toxic cyanides, cadmium, chr
omium, zinc, copper, aluminium and
low pH.
5. Iron Foundry Coal, clay, suspended solids and
iron.

6. Pesticides Aromatic compounds, acidity and high

organic matter.

7. Acids Low pH and organic content.

8. Tanneries Calcium, chromium, high salt content,
colour, dissolved and suspended matter
.

9. Explosives Alcohol, metals, TNT and organic acid

s.
2.4.2 Control (or) Preventives measures of soil pollution
 The pressure on intensification of farm activities increases for two
reasons.
 Population growth.
 Decrease of the available farm land due to urbanization.

1. Control of Soil erosion

 Soil erosion can be controlled by a variety of forestry and farm
practices.

Example
(a) Trees may be planted on barren slopes.
(b) Contour cultivation and strip cropping may be practiced instead
of shifting cultivation.
(c) Terracing and building diversion channels may be undertaken.
 Reducing deforestation and substituting chemical manures by
animal wastes would also help to arrest soil erosion in the long
term.
 Maintaining soil productivity is vital and essential for
sustainable agriculture.

2. Proper dumping of unwanted materials

 Excess of waste products by man and animals cause chronic
disposal problem. Open dumping is most commonly practiced
method.

 Recently controlled tipping is followed for solid waste disposal.

The surface so obtained then can be used for housing (or) sports
field.
3. Production of natural fertilizers
 Excessive use of chemical fertilizers and insecticides should be
avoided. Biopesticides should be used in place of toxic chemical
pesticides.

Example Organic wastes contained in animals dung can be used

for preparing compost manure and biogas rather than throwing
them wastefully polluting the soil.

4. Proper Hygienic condition

 People should be trained regarding the sanitary habits.

Example Lavatories should be equipped with quick and effective

disposal methods.
5. Public Awareness
 Informal and formal public awareness programs should be
imparted to educate people on health hazards by environmental
pollution.

Example Mass media, educational institutions and voluntary agencies

can achieve this.

6. Recycling and Reuse of wastes

 To minimize soil pollution, the wastes such as paper, plastics,
metals, glasses, organics, petroleum products and industrial effluents
etc., should be recycled and reused.

Example Industrial wastes should be properly treated at source.

Integrated waste treatment method should be adopted.
7. Ban on Toxic Chemicals
 Ban should be imposed on chemicals and pesticides like DDT,
BHC etc., which are fatal to plants and animals.
 Nuclear explosions and the improper disposal of radioactive
wastes should be banned.

2.5 NOISE POLLUTION

Definition
Noise pollution is defined as, “the unwanted, unpleasant (or)
disagreeable sound that causes discomfort for all living beings.”

Unit of Noise (Decibel)

 The sound intensity is measured in decibel (dB), which is one tenth
of the longest unit Bel.
 One dB is equal to the faintest sound, a human ear can hear.
Noise level
 Normal conversation sound ranges from 35 dB to 60 dB.

 Impairment of hearing takes place due to exposure to noise of 80

dB (or) more.

 Noise above 140 dB becomes painful.

2.5.1 Types and sources (causes) of noise

 It has been found that environmental noise is doubling every 10
years. Generally noise is described as,

 Industrial noise.
 Transport noise.
 Neighbourhood noise.
1. Industrial Noise
 Highly intense sound (or) noise pollution is caused by many
machines.

There exists a long list of sources of noise pollution including

different machines of numerous factories, industries and mills.

 Industrial noise, particularly from mechanical saws and pneumatic

drill is unbearable and is a nuisance to public.

Recently, it has been observed by the Institute of Oto-Rino

Laryngology, Chennai that enormously increasing industrial pollution
has damaged the hearing of about 20% workers.

Example In the steel industry, the workers near the heavy industrial
blowers are exposed to 112 dB for eight hours and suffer from the
occupational pollution.
2. Transport Noise
 The main noise, comes from transport. It mainly includes road traffic
noise, rail traffic noise and air craft noise.
 The number of road vehicles like motors, scooters, cars, motor
cycles, buses, trucks and particularly the diesel engine vehicles have
increased enormously in recent years.
 That is why, this form of pollution is gaining importance, especially in
large and over crowded towns and cities.
 According to experts, the noise level in most of the residential areas
in metropolitan cities is already hovering on the border line because of
vehicular noise pollution.
 A survey conducted in metropolitan cities has shown that noise level
in Delhi, Bombay and Calcutta is as high as 90 dB.
 Inhabitants of cities are subjected to this most annoying form of
transport noise which gradually deafen them.
3. Neighbourhood Noise
This type of noise includes disturbance from household gadgets
and community.
 Common noise makers are musical instruments, TV, VCR,
radios, transistors, telephones, and loudspeakers etc.,
 Ever since the industrial revolution, noise in environment has
been doubling every ten years.

2.5.2 Effects of Noise Pollution

 Noise Pollution affects human health, comfort and efficiency.
It causes contraction of blood vessels, makes the skin pale, leads to
excessive secretion of adrenalin hormone into blood stream which
is responsible for high blood pressure. Blaring sounds have known
to cause mental distress, heart attacks neurological problems, birth
defects and abortion.
 It causes muscles to contract leading to nervous breakdown,
tension etc.,
 These adverse reactions are coupled with a change in hormone
content of blood, which in turn increase the rate of heart beat,
contraction of blood vessels, and dilation of pupil of eye.
 It affects health efficiency and behaviour. It may cause damage to
heart, brain, kidneys, liver and may also produce emotional
disturbances.
 The most immediate and acute effect of noise is the impairment of
hearing which diminishes by the damage of some part of auditory
system.
When exposed to very loud and sudden noise acute damage occurs
to the ear drum. Prolonged exposure to noise of certain frequency
pattern will lead to chronic damage to the hair cells in the inner ear.
 In addition to serious loss of hearing due to excessive noise,
impulsive noise also causes psychological and pathological disorders.
 Ultrasonic sound can affect the digestive, respiratory, cardio
vascular systems and semicircular canals of the internal ear. The rate
of heart beat may also be affected. It may decrease (or) increase
depending on the type of noise.
 Brain is also adversely affected by loud and sudden noise as that of
jet and aeroplane noise etc. People are subjected to Psychiatric illness.
 Recently it has been reported that blood is also thickened by
excessive noises.
 It is quite surprising that our optical system is also a prey for noise
pollution. Pupillary dilation, impairment of night vision and decrease
in the rate of colour perception are some of its severe effects.
2.5.3 Control (or) Preventive measures of noise pollution
1. Source Control
 This may include source modification such as acoustic treatment
to machine surface, design changes, limiting the operational timings
and so on.

2. Transmission Path Intervention

 This may include containing the source inside a sound insulating
enclosure, construction of a noise barrier (or) provision of sound
absorbing materials along the path.

3. Receptor control
 This includes protection of the receiver by altering the work
schedule (or) provision of personal protection devices such as ear
plugs for operating noisy machinery.
 The measure may include dissipation and deflection methods.
4. Oiling
Proper oiling will reduce the noise from the machines.

5. Planting trees around houses can also act as effective noise

barriers.

6. Different types of absorptive materials can be used to control

interior noise.

2.5.4 Other Preventive measures

 Noise can be reduced by prescribing noise limits for vehicular
traffic, ban on honking of horns in certain areas and creation of silent
zones near schools and hospitals and redesigning of buildings to
make them noise proof.

 Other measures can involve reduction of traffic density in

residential areas and giving preferences to mass public transport
system.
 Table 2.6: Ambient Noise Level dB.

Zone Day-time Night-time

Silent zone 50 40

Residential zone 55 45

Commercial zone 65 55

Industrial zone 70 70
2.6 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT (OR) WASTE SHED
MANAGEMENT
 Rapid population growth and urbanization in developing countries
have led to the generations of enormous quantities of solid wastes and
consequential environmental degradation.

 An estimated 7.6 million tonnes of municipal solid waste is

produced per day in developing countries.

 These wastes are disposed in open dumps creating considerable

nuisance and environmental problems.

 These are potential risks to health and to the environment from

improper management of solid wastes.

 Management of solid waste is therefore, become very important in

order to minimize the adverse effects of solid wastes.
Definition
 Solid waste management is the process of collecting, treating and
disposing of solid waste.
2.6.1 Types and sources of solid wastes
 Depending upon the nature, solid wastes can be broadly classified
into three types
 Urban (or) Municipal wastes.
 Industrial wastes.
 Hazardous wastes.

I Source of Urban (Municipal) Wastes

 Urban (or) municipal wastes include the following wastes
(a) Domestic wastes
 It contains a variety of materials thrown out from the homes.
Examples Food waste, cloth, waste paper, glass bottles, polythene
bags, waste metals, etc.,
(b) Commercial wastes
 It includes the wastes coming out from the shops, markets, hotels,
offices, institutions, etc.,

Examples Waste paper, packing material, cans, bottle, polythene

bags, etc.,

(c) Construction wastes

 It includes the wastes of construction materials.

Examples Wood, concrete, debris etc.,

(d) Biomedical wastes

 It includes mostly the waste organic materials.

Examples Anatomical wastes, infectious wastes, etc.,

Type and characteristics of Urban (municipal) Wastes

(i) Bio-degradable wastes

 The urban solid waste materials, that can be degraded by micro
organisms are called biodegradable wastes.

Examples Food, vegetables, tea leaves, egg shells, dry leaves,

etc.,

(ii) Non - Biodegradable wastes

The urban solid waste materials that cannot be degraded by micro
organisms are called non-biodegradable wastes.

Examples Polythene bags, scrap metals, glass bottles, etc.,

II Source and characteristics of industrial wastes
 The main sources of industrial wastes are chemical industries, metal
and mineral processing industries.

Examples
(i) Nuclear power plants
 It generates radioactive wastes.
(ii) Thermal power plants
 It produces fly ash in large quantities.
(iii) Chemical industries
 It produces large quantities of hazardous and toxic materials.
(iv) Other industries
 Other industries produce, packing materials, rubbish, organic
wastes, acids, alkalis, scrap metals, rubber, plastic, paper, glass, wood,
oils, paints, dyes, etc.,
2.6.2 Effect of Solid Wastes (or) Effect of Improper Solid Waste
Management

 Due to improper disposal of municipal solid wastes on the road

side and their immediate surroundings, biodegradable materials
undergo decomposition. This produces foul smell and breeds various
types of insects, which spoil the land value.

 Industrial solid wastes are the sources of toxic metals and

hazardous wastes, which affect the soil characteristics and
productivity of soils when they are dumped on the soil.

 Toxic substances may percolate into the ground and contaminate

the ground water.
 Burning of some of the industrial wastes (or) domestic wastes
(like cans, pesticides, plastics, radioactive materials, batteries)
produce furans, dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls, which are
harmful to human beings.

2.6.3 Process of Solid Waste Management (or) Process of

preventing solid waste generation in urban areas (or) Waste Shed
Management

 Solid waste management includes, the waste generation, mode

of collection, transportation, segregation of wastes and disposal
techniques.
Flow Chart
Steps involved in Solid waste management (or) Shed waste
management
 Two important steps of solid waste (waste shed) management is
Reduce, reuse and recycle, before destruction and safe storage of
wastes.

I Reduce, Reuse and Recycle (3R)

(a) Reduce the usage of raw materials
 If the usage of raw materials are reduced, the generation of waste
also gets reduced.
(b) Reuse of waste materials
 The refillable containers, which are discarded after use, can be
reused.
 Rubber rings can be made from the discarded cycle tubes, which
reduces the waste generation during manufacturing of rubber bands.
(c) Recycling of materials
 Recycling is the reprocessing of the discarded materials into
new useful products.

Examples
(a) Old aluminium cans and glass bottles are melted and recast
into new cans and bottles.
(b) Preparation of cellulose insulation from paper.
(c) Preparation of fuel pellets from kitchen waste.
(d) Preparation of automobiles and construction materials from
steel cans.

 The above process saves money, energy, raw materials, and

reduces pollution.
II Discarding wastes
 For discarding solid wastes the following methods can be adopted.

Methods of disposal of solid waste

 Landfill
 Incineration (Thermal)
 Composting

1. Landfill
 Solid wastes are placed in sanitary landfill system in alternate
layers of 80 cm thick refuse, covered with selected earth fill of 20 cm
thickness.

 After two (or) three years, solid waste volume shrinks by 25-30%
and the land is used for parks, roads and small buildings.
 The most common and cheapest method of waste disposal is
dumping in sanitary land-fills which is invariably employed in
Indian cities.
 Land-fill structure is built either into the ground (or) on the
ground into which the waste is dumped.
 The method involves spreading the solid waste on the ground,
compacting it and then covering it with soil at suitable intervals.

Advantages
 It is simple and economical.
 Segregation not required.
 Landfilled areas can be reclaimed and used for other purposes.
 Converts low-lying, marshy waste-land into useful areas.
 Natural resources are returned to soil and recycled.
Disadvantages
 A large area is required.
 Since land is available away from town, transportation cost is
heavy.
 Bad odours, if landfills are not properly managed.
 The land filled areas will be the sources of mosquitoes and
flies and hence insecticides and pesticides are to be applied at
regular intervals.
 Causes fire hazard due to the formation of methane in wet
weather.

2. Incineration (or) Thermal process

 It is a hygienic way of disposing solid waste.
 It is more suitable if the waste contains more hazardous material
and organic content.
 It is a thermal process and is very effective for detoxification of
all combustible pathogens.
 It is an expensive technology compared to land-fill and
composting because incinerators are costly.
 In this method the municipal solid wastes are burnt in a furnace
called incinerator.
 The combustible substances such as rubbish, garbage, dead
organisms and the noncombustible matter such as glass, porcelain,
metals are separated before feeding to incinerators.
 The noncombustible materials can be left out for recycling and
reuse.
 The left out ashes and clinkers from the incinerators may be
accounted for only about 10 to 20% which need further disposal
either by sanatory landfill (or) by some other means.
 The heat produced in the incinerator during the burning of refuse is
used in the form of steam power for generation of electricity
throughout turbines.

 The municipal solid waste is generally wet but has a very high
calorific value so it has to be dried up first before burning.

 The waste is dried in preheater from where it is taken into large

incinerating furnace called destructors which can incinerate about 100
to 150 tonnes per hour.

The temperature normally maintained in a combustion chamber is

about 700°C and may be increased to about 1000°C when electricity
is to be generated.
Advantages
 The residue is only 20-25% of original weight, the clinker can be
used after treatment.
 It requires very little space.
 Cost of transportation is not high as incinerators located within
city limits.
 Safest from hygienic point of view.
 An incinerator plant of 300 tonnes per day capacity can generate
3MW of power.

Disadvantages
 Its capital and operating cost is high.
 Needs skilled personnel.
 Formation of smoke, dust and ashes needs further disposal, due
to which air pollution may be caused.
3. Composting

 It is another popular method practiced in many cities in our

country.

 In this method, bulk organic waste is converted into a fertilising

manure by biological action.

 The separated compostable waste is dumped in underground

earthern trenches in layers of 1.5 m and is finally covered with earth
of about 20 cm and left over for decomposition.

 Sometimes certain microorganisms such as actinomycetes are

introduced for active decomposition.
 Within 2 to 3 days biological action starts, the organic matters
are being destroyed by actinomycetes and lot of heat is liberated
increasing the temperature of the compost by about 75°C and
finally the refuse is converted to powdery brown coloured
odourless mass known as humus and has a fertilizing value which
can be used for agricultural field.

 The compost contains lot of nitrogen essential for plant growth

apart from phosphates and other minerals.

 World Health Organisation (WHO) has set up a compost plant

in New Delhi in 1981 with a capacity to handle 90 to 100 tonnes of
waste everyday.
 The prepared compost was supplied to nurseries, kitchen gardens
and World Health Organisation (WHO) has set up a compost plant in
New Delhi in 1981 with a capacity to handle 90 to 100 tonnes of
waste everyday.

 The prepared compost was supplied to nurseries, kitchen gardens

and horticulture department.

 The composting technology is widely employed in developing

countries.

Advantages
 When the manure is added to soil, it increases the water
retention and ion-exchange capacity of soil.
 A number of industrial solid wastes can also be treated by this
method.
  It can (manure) be sold thereby reducing the cost of
disposing of wastes.
 Recycling - occurs.

Disadvantages
 The non-consumables have to be disposed separately.
 Use of compost has not yet caught up with farmers and hence
no assured market.

2.7 Hazardas waste

It is the waste that has potential threats to public health (or) the
environment.
Examples
 Cleaning solvents (acids and bases).
 Spent acids and bases.
 Metal finishing wastes.
 Painting wastes.
 Sludges from air and water pollution control units.
 Disinfectants and pesticides.

2.7.1 Types and characteristics of hazardous wastes

1. Toxic wastes
 These are poisonous even in very small (or) trace amounts. They
may have
(i) Acute effects
 Causing death (or) violent illness
(ii) Chronic effects
 Slowly causing irrseparable harm.
2. Carcinogenic waste
 It causes cancer after many years of exposure.
3. Mutagenic
 It causes major biological changes in the off-spring of exposed
humans and wild life.
4. Reactive wastes
 These are chemically unusable and react violently with air (or)
water.
 They cause explosions (or) form toxic vapours.
5. Ignitable wastes
 They burn at relatively low temperatures and caus an immediate
fire hazard.
6. Corrosive wastes
 These include strong acidic (or) alkaline substances.
 They destroy solid material and living tissue upon contact.
7. Infectious wastes
 These include used bandages, hypodermic needles from
hospitals (or) biological research facilities.
8. Radioactive wastes
 These emit ionizing energy that can harm living organisms.

2.7.2 Hazardous waste management

Definition
It is the collection, treatment and disposal of waste materials that
can cause substantial harm to human health (or) to the
environment.

 Improper hazardous-waste storage (or) disposal contaminates

surface water and ground water supplies as harmful water pollution
and land pollution.
 People living in homes, built near waste disposal sites, may be in
a vulnerable position.

 The best remedy for this problem is to regulate the practice of

hazardous - waste management.

2.7.3 Various steps of hazardous waste management

 Hazardous waste management involves the following 4 steps

Step 1: Analysis:
 Physical and chemical properties of hazardous waste must be
analysed before collection and recovery of useful components.

 It is essential because it can be used as a fertilizer, liming

material (or) soil amendment.
2.7.3 Various steps of hazardous waste management
 Hazardous waste management involves the following 4 steps

Fig 2.4 Steps of hazardous waste management

Step 2: Collection and transport
 Hazardous waste, generated at a particular place, is generally
collected and transported by truck over public highways.

 It can also be shipped in tank trucks, made of steel (or) aluminium

alloy, with capacities upto about 34,000 litres.

 It can be containerized and shipped in 200 litre drums.

Step 3: Treatment (or) Recovery

 Hazardous waste can be treated (or) recovered by

 Chemical method.
 Thermal method.
 Biological method.
 Physical method.
1. Chemical method
 It includes ion-exchange, precipitation, oxidation and reduction
and neutralization.

2. Thermal method
High temperature incineration
 It not only can detoxify certain organic wastes but also can
destroy them.

Special type of thermal equipment

Examples
Fluidized-bed incinerator, multiple hearth furnace, rotary kiln and
liquid-injection incinerator.

Problem
 Hazardous-waste incineration is the source of air pollution.
3. Biological treatment

Example: Land farming

 Land farming is one method of treating hazardous waste
biologically, in which waste is mixed with surface soil on a suitable
land.

 Microbes that can metabolize the waste may be added, along

with nutrients.

Bio-remediation
 Microbes can also be used for stabilizing hazardous wastes on
previously contaminated sites.

 This process is called bio-remediation.

4. Physical treatment
Example
Evaporation, sedimentation, solidification, flotation and filtration.
 The above treatment concentrates, solidifies (or) reduces the volume
of the waste. Solidification is achieved by encapsulating waste in
concrete, asphalt (or) plastic container. Encapsulation produces a solid
mass of material that is resistant to leaching.

Step 4 Storage and disposal

 Hazardous wastes that are not destroyed by incineration (or) other
chemical processes need to be disposed properly.
 This can be done by the following methods.

1. Surface storage (or) containment systems - Temporary method

It includes
 New waste piles
 Ponds (or) lagoons.
(i) New waste piles
 It is carefully constructed over an impervious base.
 The piles must be protected from wind dispersion, erosion and
leaching.
 Only non-containerized solid, non-flowing waste material can be
stored in a new waste pile.
(ii) Ponds (or) lagoons
 It is lined with impervious clay soils and flexible membrane liners
inorder to protect ground water.
 Leachate collection systems is installed between the liners.
2. Deep-well injection
 It involves pumping liquid waste through a steel casing into a
porous layer of limestone (or) sandstone.
 High pressure is applied to force the liquid into the pores, where it
is permanently stored.
Fig. 2.5 Storage of Hazardous waste in Land fill
3. Land fills
 It provides at least 3 metres (10 ft) of separation between the
bottom of the landfill and the underlying bed rock (or) ground water
table.
 It is also provided with two impermeable liners and leachate
collection system, which pumps the collected leachate to a treatment
plant.

2.8 e-WASTE (Electronic waste)

Definition
e-waste describes discarded electrical (or) electronic devices.
 e-wastes are considered dangerous because they contain
hazardous chemicals.
 The hazardous content of e-waste pose a threat to human health
and environment.
Fig. 2.6 e-waste logo
2.8.1 Hazardous chemicals in e-wastes (or) Causes of e-wastes
 Some of the hazardous chemicals present in some e-wastes are

 Circuit boards in computer have heavy metals like lead and

cadmium.

 Batteries have cadmium.

 Cathode ray tubes have lead oxide and barium.

 Most of the electronic products have polyvinyl chloride.

Plastics have dioxins and furans. So, if these waste electronic

products are not properly disposed, they can leach hazardous
elements such as lead, cadmium and other chemicals into the soil
and ground water and cause severe threat to environment.
2.8.2 e-waste management
Definition

e-waste management is defined as a holistic method of cutting

down e-waste from the earth to prevent its harmful toxic to
deteriorate earth.

 Management of e-waste should begin at the point of generation.

 This can be done by waste minimisation techniques and by
sustainable product design.

Some e-waste management techniques

 Waste management in industries involves adopting,
 inventory management,
 production process modification,
 sustainable product design,
 use of renewable raw materials.
1. Inventory management
 Proper control over the materials, used in the manufacturing
process, is an important way to reduce waste generation.
 By reducing the quantity of hazardous materials, used in the
process, e-waste could be reduced.
2. Production process modification
 By changing the production process e-waste generation can be
minimised.
3. Sustainable product design
 Efforts should be made to design a product with less amount of
hazardous material.
Example
 New computer designs that are lighter and more integrated.
4. Use of renewable materials
 Bio based plastics are plastics made with plant based chemistry (or)
plant producted polymers.
 Most e-waste have non-degradable polymers in them.
 By using these bio polymers we can reduce ‘e’-wastes.
 Like wise bio based toners, glues and inks are new development e-
wastes.

2.9 OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY MANAGEMENT

SYSTEM (OHASMS)

An occupational health and safety management system (OHASMS)

is a fundamental part of an organization’s risk management strategy.
It enables an organization to protect its work force and others under
its control.
Importance
 It reduces risk (or) accidents (or) injuries by identifying and
mitigating hazards.

2.9.1 Case studies on OHASMS

I A Footwear manufacturing industry in Ambur, Tamil Nadu
Objective
 The main objective of this case study is to assess the status of
occupational health and safety of a footwear manufacturing industry
with respect to the social compliance.
Observation
 We have visited Azim leather and footwear industries. Ambur,
Tamil nadu.
 Overall occupational health and safety management practice in
Azim leather and footwear industries was found to be good.
Production Process
 Production process of Azim industries starts after collecting the
raw materials, cutting them, assembling, joining the insole and
outsole to the shoe, finishing and packing.
 Lots of people engaged during this production process.
 About 70% of total workers are female.
 In every section, Azim industries have employed experts to
look after the work of the worker and improve the efficiency.

Some of the encouraging approaches observed in Azim

industry
 Positive attitude of owner towards welfare of the workers.
 Dedicated work force.
 Experienced and professional management team.
 Good relationship between management and workers.
 Disbursement of salary and wages to workers.

 First aid box is found in all floors according to requirements of

Indian labour rules.

 Factory has own health centre to provide primary treatment.

 Certified physician and nurse were available during the visit.

 Factory has its child care centre.

 Factory has well maintained hygienic canteen.

 Factory is conducting fire drill regularly.

 Regular testing of drinking water, etc., is carried out.

Deficiency observed in Azim Industry and solution
 According to environmental conservation rules, labour rules of
Indian Government and International guide lines, below findings are
observed during factory visit and discussed the solutions with
management.
 Management should maintain cleanliness of the area.
 Management should place temperature and humidity measuring
device in workplace because excessive heat and humidity are
injurious for workers health.
 Management should monitor and maintain sufficient and suitable
lightings.
 Factory must display material safety data sheet at all chemical
storage areas.
 Factory should confirm risk assessment for entire work place
health and safety.
Report (or) Conclusion
 Overall occupational health and safety management practice in
Azim industries was found good.
 Though some deficiency were found during this visit, but
commitment of top management towards occupational health and
safety was impressive.

2. Fire work industry in Sivakasi, Tamil Nadu

 Safety and well-being is very essential for firework employees
because in fireworks they are handling dangerous materials every day.
 So the safety measures are most important in the firework industry.
 They are handling chemicals which will affect their health too.
 According to the factories Act, safety and well-being is very
necessary.
 For well-being first aid kit, toilet facilities, cleanliness and medical
camp are very essential.
Objectives of this study
 The main objective of this study is to analyze the industrial
safety and well-being of firework employees in “Kumaran
fireworks” in Sivakasi.
 We have visited “Kumaran fireworks” and analyzed overall
occupational health and safety management practices of 257
employees and selected 30 respondents and conducted survey
question regarding safety measures of the employees.
Some of the encouraging approaches observed in “Kumaran
fireworks”
 100% of respondent feels that adequate safety measures are
taken during fire accidents.
 93.3% of respondent said limited safety materials are provided
during the work.
 100% of respondent said the air circulation is perfect in the
industry.
 90% of respondent said first aid box is available all the time.
 80.5% of respondent felt the work place is always clean and
neat.
 85% of respondent said the building and machines are
maintained in proper way.

Deficiency observed in Kumaran fireworks and solution

 Management should conduct medical camp once in 6 months,
in the industry.
 Management must provide separate toilet facilities for men and
women.
 Proper rest room must be provided to the workers for taking
rest in the break time.
 Enough safety materials like gloves, face mask must be provided
while they are working near chemicals and machines in the factory.

 More safety guards around the machines must be provided.

Report (or) Conclusion

 Overall occupational health and safety management practice in
“Kumaran fireworks” was found good.

 Though some deficiency were found during this visit,

commitment of top management towards occupational health and
safety was impressive.
2.10 ENVIRONMENTAL PRODUCTION

Definition
Environmental protection is the practice of protecting the natural
environment by individuals, organizations and governments.

Objectives
 Its objectives are
 to conserve natural resources,
 to conserve the existing natural environment,
 to repair damage and reverse trends.
 Due to the pressures of over consumption, population growth and
technology, the biophysical environment is being degraded. This has
been recognized and governments have begun placing restraints on
activities that cause environmental degradation.
Importance (or) Goal of environmental protection
 To reduce air, water and land pollution.

 To facilitate the conservation of natural resources for our future

generations.

 To ensure the protection of biodiversity.

 To implement sustainable development.

 To restore the ecological balance.

 To save our planet from harmful effects of global warming.

2.10.1 Environment (Protection) Act, 1986
 This is a general legislation law in order to rectify the gaps and
laps in the above Acts.

 This Act empowers the Central government to fix the standards

for quality of air, water, soil and noise and to formulate procedures
and safe guards for handling of hazard substances.

Objectives of environmental act

 to protect and improvement of the environment,

 to prevent hazards to all living creatures and property,

 to maintain harmonious relationship between humans and their

environment.
Important features of Environment Act
 The Act further empowers the Government to lay down
procedures and safe guards for the prevention of accidents
which cause pollution and remedial measures if an accident
occurs.

 The Government has the authority to close (or) prohibit (or)

regulate any industry (or) its operation, if the violation of the
provisions of the Act occur.

 The penal sections of the Act contain more stringent penalties.

Any person who fails to comply (or) who contravenes any
provision of the Act shall be punishable with imprisonment for a
term extending to five years (or) be punishable with fine up to
Rupees one lakh (or) both.
 If the violation continues, an additional fine of Rupees five
thousands per day may be imposed for the entire period of violation
of rules.

 The Act fixes the liability of the offence punishable under Act on
the person who is directly in charge. Whether he/she is the director
(or) Manager (or) Secretary (or) any other officer, unless he/she
proves that it was committed without his/her knowledge (or)
consent.

 The Act empowers the officer of Central government to inspect

the site (or) the plant (or) the machinery for preventing pollution
and to collect samples of air, water, soil (or) other material from any
factory (or) its premises for testing.
 The Environment (Protection) Act is the most comprehensive
legislation with powers for the central government to directly act,
avoiding many regulatory authorities (or) agencies.

2.10.2 Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974

 This act provides for maintaining and restoring the sources of
water. It also provides for preventing and controlling water pollution.

Objectives of the water act

 prevention and control of water pollution,

 maintaining (or) restoring the wholesomeness of water,

 establishing central and state boards for the prevention and

control of water pollution.
Important features of Water Act
 This Act aims at, to protect the water from all kinds of pollution
and to preserve the quality of water in all aquifers.
 The Act further provides for the establishment of Central Board
and State Boards for prevention of water pollution.
 The States are empowered to restrain any person from
discharging a pollutant (or) sewage (or) effluent into any water
body without the consent of the Board.
 Any contravention of the guidelines (or) standards would attract
penal action including prison sentence ranging from three months
to six years.
 The Act is not clear about the definition of pollutant, discharge
of pollutant, toxic pollutant which allows scope for
misinterpretation at the time of decision whether the law is violated
(or) not.
 The Amendment Act of 1988 requires permission to set up an
industry which may discharge effluent.
State Pollution Control Board
 The consent of the State Pollution Control Board is needed to
Take steps to establish any industry (or) any treatment and
disposal system (or) any extension (or) addition there to, which is
likely to discharge (or) trade effluent into a stream (or) well (or)
river (or) on land.

 Use any new (or) altered outlet for the discharge of a sewage.

 Begin to make any new discharge of sewage. In the event of a

violation of the conditions imposed, the State Board may serve
on the offender a notice imposing any such conditions as it might
establishment, such outlet (or) discharge that is a violation of the
conditions.
 The Act further empowers the State Board to order closure (or)
stoppage of supply (or) electricity, water (or) any other services to the
polluting unit.

 Non-compliance of the order may attract imprisonment for a term

of one and half years to six years and fine which may extend to
Rupees five thousand for every day, if the default continues.

2.10.3 Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981

 This Act was enacted in the Conference held at Stockholm in
1972.
 It deals with the problems relating to air pollution.
 It envisages the establishment of Central and State Control Boards
endowed with absolute powers to monitor air quality and pollution
control.
Objectives of air act are
 to prevent, control and abatement of air pollution,
 to maintain the quality of air,
 to establish a board for the prevention and control of air
pollution.
Important features of Air Act
 The Central Board may lay down the standards for the quality of
air.
 The Central Board co-ordinates and settle disputes between state
boards, in addition to providing technical assistance and guidance to
State Boards.
 The State Boards are empowered to lay down the standards for
emissions of air pollutants from industrial units (or) automobiles (or)
other sources.
 The State Boards are to collect and disseminate information
related to air pollution and also to function as inspectorates of air
pollution.

 The State Boards are to examine the manufacturing processes

and the control of equipment to verify whether they meet the
standards prescribed.

 The State Board can advise the State Government to declare

certain heavily polluted areas as pollution control areas and can
advice to avoid the burning of waste products which cause air
pollution in such areas.

 The directions of the Central Board are mandatory on State

Boards.
 The operation of an industrial unit is prohibited in a heavily
polluted areas without the consent of the Central Board’.

 Violation of law is punishable with imprisonment for a term which

may extend to three months (or) fine up to Rupees ten thousand
(or) both.

 This Act applies to all pollution industries.

 The Air Act, like Water Act, confers wide powers on State Boards
to order closure of any industrial unit (or) stoppage (or) regulation of
supply of water, electricity (or) other services, if it is highly polluting.

2.10.4 Forest (Conservation (or) Preservative) Act, 1980

 This act provides conservation of forests and related aspects.
 This act also covers all type of forests including reserved forests,
protected forests and any forested land.
 This Act is enacted in 1980.
 It aims at to arrest deforestation.

Objectives of forest act

 to protect and conserve the forest,
 to ensure judicious use of forest products.

Important features of Forest Act

 The reserved forests shall not be diverted (or) dereserved
without the prior permission of the central government.
 The land that has been notified (or) registered (or) forest land
may not be used for non-forest purposes.
 Any illegal non-forest activity within a forest area can be
immediately stopped under act.
Important features of Amendment Act of 1988
 Forest departments are forbidden to assign any forest land ‘by
way of lease (or) otherwise to any private person’ (or) non-
government body for re-afforestation.
 Clearance of any forest land of naturally grown trees for the
purpose of re-afforestation is forbidden.
 The diversion of forest land for non-forest uses is cognisable
offence and any one who violates the law is punishable.

2.10.5 Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, Amended in 1983, 1986 and

1991
 This act is aimed to protect and preserve wildlife.

 Wild life refers to all animals and plants that are not domesticated.

 India has rich wildlife heritage.
 It has 350 species of mammals, 1200 species of birds and about
20,000 known species of insects.
 Some of them are listed as ‘endangered species’ in the Wildlife
(Protection) Act.
 Wildlife is an integral part of our ecology and plays an essential
role in its functioning.
 The wildlife is declining due to human actions, the wildlife
products - skins, furs, feathers, ivory etc., have decimated the
populations of many species. Wildlife populations are regularly
monitored and management strategies formulated to protect them.

Objectives of the wildlife act

 to maintain essential ecological processes and life-
supporting systems,
  to preserve biodiversity,
 to ensure a continuous use of species.

Important features
 The act covers the rights and non-rights of forest dwellers.

 It provides restricted grazing in sanctuaries but prohibits in

national parks.

 It also prohibits the collection of non-timber forest.

 The rights of forest dwellers recognized by the Forest Policy of

1988 are taken away by the Amended Wild life Act of 1991.