Metallurgy of Metals

What is Metallurgy

• the branch of science and

technology concerned with
the properties of metals
and their production and
purification.
 Advantages of proper metal identification
 helps determine the appropriate welding
process.
 helps establish the necessary heat
treatment (preheating, inter-pass
heating, post heating) on 1” plate.
 helps establish what type of filler metal
that is compatible to base metal.
 Metal identification test
appearance test – testing using our naked eye

metal color
yellow rust
green
brass red/ orange green
bronze red/ orange green
copper silver/chrome white
stainless steel silver/chrome white
Aluminum g.i. brown
Iron
chemical test – drop an acid to a surface of
metal
if metal reacts ferrous
if no reaction non-ferrous
chisel test
if metal has continuous chip soft metal
if metal chip is short and brittle hard metal
if chisel slips and no chips very hard metal
file test
fast cut soft metal
slips hard metal
magnet test
magnet sticks ferrous
magnet does not sticks non-ferrous
spark test
metal sparks ferrous
has no sparks non-ferrous
 Carbon steel identification
Low carbon steel = iron (pure) + 7% - 15%
carbon Ex. Bars (flat, tee, I, Z, angle, square,
round, channel), pipes, plates, sheet metal
Mild steel = iron (pure) + 15%-30% carbon
Ex. Bolts, shafts, frames, channels
Medium carbon steel = iron (pure) + 30%- 50%
carbon Ex. Axles, machine bolts, hammers,
sledges, chisels
High carbon steel = iron (pure) + 50%-75%
carbon Ex. screw driver, bits, spring, cutter,
blades, tool steel
STEEL PROCESS
 FIVE ESSENTIALS IN WELDING
Quality
Conforms with the standard,
customer satisfaction,
good appearance,
reliable,
durable,
accurate
 Correct Materials
1. Material – electrode properties and characteristics
should match with the base metal
Example :

Stainless = Stainless Rod

Cast Iron = Cast Iron Rod

Mild Steel = Mild Steel Rod Aluminum = Aluminum Rod

 Correct Current
Set-up of current depends upon the core size of the
electrode
Example :
E6013

1/8 Ø = 80 – 130 amperes

80 + 130 = 210 / 2 = 105 amperes start-up current. If
the welder feels that it is low the welder adjust to 130
amperes but if he feels that amperage is high, the
welder adjust it to 80 amperes.
 Correct Arc Length
Distance of the tip of electrode to the surface of base
metal.
electrode electrode electrode

Base metal Base metal Base metal

Arc Length small arc normal arc high arc

length length length
Voltage low correct high
Current low correct high
 Correct travel speed

Two techniques in checking travel speed

a. Size of molten pool
2 - 2 ½ electrode
diameter
b. Same ripple pattern
Arrow head fast
Square head slow
Circular normal
 Correct electrode angle

900 900 150-300

 Welding Machines

Welding Machine Selection

1. Performance
2. Provides infinite current control
3. Allow the best possible welding to be done
The following Welding machine will tell us the
types of power sources
Motor Generator Type
They are driven by an A.C.
or D.C. electric motor, an
internal combustion engine
or diesel engine and may
produces DC/AC or AC-DC
welding current. Engine
powered generators are independent of external
power supplies a characteristics that makes them
ideally suited for use in the out of doors or other
areas where power lines are not available.
 Transformer type

Uses the basic electrical

transformer to step down the
AC line power voltage to AC
welding voltage.
 Rectifier Type

It consists of
transformer and a silicon
or selenium rectifier to
convert AC to DC.
Rectifier type has three power sources the AC,
DC- and DC+.
DC – is Direct Current Electrode Negative (DCEN) or
otherwise called Direct Current Straight Polarity
(DCSP) where electrode is connected to the
negative pole and used for thicker metals.
DC+ is Direct Current Electrode Positive (DCEP) or
otherwise called Direct Current Reverse Polarity
(DCRP) where electrode is connected to the
positive pole and used for thinner metals.
Welding Electrodes
 Electrode and its applications
When choosing an electrode consider the following
factors:
• Properties of base metal
• Tightness of the joint fit-up
• Position of the joints
• Type of joints
• Welder’s skills
• Amount of welding required
 Kinds of Electrodes
Mild Steel Electrode – deposit
metal rapidly. They tend to be heavily
coated produce, smooth beads and
leave a thick slag that peels off easily.
Fast freeze electrodes –
deposit metal that solidifies rapidly.
This is important where there is a
chance of slag or weld metal spil-
ling out of the joint as in overhead
and vertical positions. E6010, E6011
Fill-freeze or fast flow electrodes – can
be used in all positions. It is a
reliable, general purpose and
production electrode with a forceful
arc and should be used with DCSP,
although it also operates well on AC.
E6012, E6013, E6014, E7014.
Low hydrogen electrode – are those
with coatings containing practically
no hydrogen. This produces welds
that resist cracks under the bead and
are exceptionally ductile. E6015,
E6016, E6018, E7016, E7018,
E6028, E7028.
Iron powder electrode – is
converted to steel in the intense
arc heat. When there a large
amount of iron powder, the
welding speed increases, the
arc is more stable, spatter is
reduced and slag is easier to remove. E6024,
E6027, E7024, E6020. Note : Electrodes/ Rods
with 7010 and 70XX ratings are usually alloyed
Stainless Steel Electrodes – is a
popular term for the chromium and
chromium-nickel steels. It is tough,
strong material which is highly
resistant to corrosion, high tempe-
ratures, oxidation, and scaling.
Hard facing electrodes –is the
deposition of an alloy material on
a metal part by one of several
welding processes to form a
protective surface.
Aluminum Electrodes –
is a widely fabricated metal.
This popularity is due prima-
rily to such factors as its
wide availability, strength,
light weight, good workability,
and pleasing appearance.
More than two dozens major
welding processes are used.
GMAW and GTAW are used
more than others.
Carbon rod or Gouging
rod - Use for cutting,
welding, defects
removing, making
holes, welding
inspection and
removing over-welded
parts.
 Specialized electrodes – there is large variety of
specialized electrodes to meet the condition
presented.

This is the explanation of AWS electrode about

E – 60 1 1
E 1st letter coating/ specification
60 2-3 digits tensile strength,
Yield strength, Elongation
1 1 digit welding position
1 1 digit coating/ current
Prefix Letter Coating Classification
E - indicates an arc welding which
carries the arc welding current
R - indicates a welding rod which is
heated by other means than by
carrying the arc welding current
ER - indicates a filler rod which maybe
used either as an arc welding
electrode or as a welding rod
EW - indicates a non-consumable
tungsten electrode
Prefix Letter Coating Classification
B - indicates a brazing filler metal
RB - indicates a filler metal which
maybe used as a welding rod or
as a brazing filler metal
RG - indicates a welding rod to be use
in oxy fuel gas welding
F - indicates a flux used in
submerged arc welding
No. Minimum tensile Minimum Yield Minimum

Strength (psi) Strength (psi) Elongation

60 60,000 50,000 22 %
70 70,000 60,000 22 %
80 80,000 67,000 19 %
90 90,000 77,000 17 %
100 100,000 87,000 16 %
110 110,000 97,000 15 %
 Welding Position

1 = all position
2 = vertical fillet weld and flat position
3 = horizontal position
4 = all position, vertical down
No. Type of Coating Welding Current
0
1 cellulose potassium AC or DCRP/DCSP
2 titania sodium AC or DCSP
3 titania potassium AC or DCRP/DCSP
4 Iron powder titania AC or DCRP/DCSP
5 Iron hydrogen sodium DCRP
6 Iron hydrogen potassium AC or DCRP
7 Iron powder iron oxide AC or DC
8 Iron powder iron hydrogen AC or DCRP/DCSP
AC – Alternating Current
DC – Direct Current
DCRP – Direct Current Reverse Polarity
DCSP – Direct Current Straight Polarity

When the fourth digit is zero, the type of coating and

current to be use are determined by the third digit,.
For example E6010 indicates a sodium coating /
DC reverse, while E6020 and E6060 have iron
oxide coating and operates on AC or DC current.
Electrode Electrode type and Current range (amperes)
Diameter E6010 E6012 E60 13 E60 20
(Inches) E6011
1/16 - 20-40 20-40 -
5/64 - 25-60 25-60 -
3/32 40-80 35-85 45-90 -
1/8 75-125 80-140 80-130 100- 150
5/32 110-170 110-190 105-180 130-190
3/16 140-215 140-240 150-230 175-250
7/32 170-250 200-320 210-300 225-310
1/ 4 210-320 250-400 250-350 275-375
5/16 275-425 300-600 320-430 340-450
Electrode Electrode type and Current range (amperes)
Diameter E6027 E7014 E7015 E7018 E7024
(Inches) E7016 E7028
1/16 - - - - -
5/64 - - - - -
3/32 - 85-125 65-110 70-110 100-145*
1/8 125-185 110-160 100-150 115-165 140- 190
5/32 160-240 150-210 140-200 150-220 180-250
3/16 140-215 140-240 150-230 175-250
7/32 170-250 200-320 210-300 225-310
1/ 4 210-320 250-400 250-350 275-375
5/16 275-425 300-600 320-430 340-450
 Electrode Ovens
Keeps electrode warm
and out of moisture
Welding Tools
Ballpeen hammer
Cutting Tools
Chipping hammer
Steel brush
Portable Electric grinders
Welding stand
Bending machines
Types of Welding Inspections
 Non-Destructive Testing
Visual Inspection - involves close examination of
weld surface and joints
Magnetic Particle -
surface or near surface
flaws are located by
means of an induce
magnetic field and its
effect upon finely
divided magnetic
particles distributed
across the surface
Liquid Penetrant -
maybe dye or
fluorescent penetrant,
they are applied to the
surface, let it dry and
allowed to penetrate
the metal surface
Ultrasonic (Sound) Testing - generates sound
waves and uses the principle of echo.
Radiographic (X-ray) - is
based essentially on the
ability of short wave
radiations (x-rays or
gamma rays) to penetrate
objects opaque to
ordinary light
Eddy Current - uses
electromagnetic energy
for detecting and locating
weld defects.
Destructive Testing
It is a kind of testing where
materials is subjected to
different type of destructive
testing.
Bend test
Root bend
Face bend
Tensile test Hardness test
Charpy Test Machine Impact test
 Types of Welding Defects
Spatter - A very common oc-
currence is the creation of what
welders call “spatter”, which is
essentially little droplets of molten
material that are generated at or
near the welding arc. Spatter is
generally regarded as a nuisance
and is a critical factor that needs to be taken into
consideration when developing an application.
 Spatter is caused by several factors, the main factor
being a disturbance in the molten weld pool during the
transfer of wire into the weld. Typically this is caused
by the relationship between amperage and voltage. This is
usually seen when the welding
voltage is too low or the amperage is
too high for a given wire and gas
combination. In this situation, the
arc is too cold to keep the wire and
pool molten and causes a stubbing
effect of the wire. This can occur at
both high and low current ranges.
DIMENSIONAL Welding-defects can be assessed by
visual inspection and by measuring with simple weld
gages. They derive from improper set up or by
distortion which should be controlled in a proper
fixture, or by a different welding sequence. In general
they should be corrected by employing proper means
before welding. MISALIGNMENT is a setup problem.
Other appearance features which may cause rejection
of these Welding-defects are excessive bead convexity
and reinforcement, or the opposite condition, namely
considerable concavity and undersized welds. Here
the welder's technique should be improved.
 Ways of avoiding Dimensional Defects

20 - 3 0
Pre-setting

20 - 3 0 Chill strip

Peening Bead sequencing

UNDERCUT consists in a
groove formed into the
base metal, adjacent to the
weld bead. It derives from
improper manipulation of
torch or electrode. Further
training and improved skill
of the welder should save
future performance.
CRACKS are welding-defects never permitted, because
they are seen as stress raisers, and capable to grow
until fracture. Different forms and positions of cracks
can hint at their origin, and should be investigated
before trying to correct for their appearance. Except for
cases of lack of experience of the welder, who may be
unable to end a weld bead without crater cracking,
other instances derive mostly from limited weldability of
the materials, and should be dealt with by whoever has
metallurgical experience, by means of special
procedures invoking pre-heat and post heat and other
tricks which the welder cannot be expected to provide.
POROSITY is a condition caused
by gases remaining entrapped in
the melt. This pertains generally to
internal Welding-defects, which can
be detected either by sectioning
(which is a destructive test) or by special non-destructive
testing like radiography or ultrasonic testing. If this condi-
tion is determined, one should eliminate the cause, be it
the material, or humidity in the electrode sheathing, or
gases from excessive heat and turbulence in the melt or
incorrect manipulation (improve skill).
INCOMPLETE FUSION, which is
generally assessed by sectioning
the joint (mostly a test piece) and
finding the unmelted base metal
that outlines the original joint
shape.

INADEQUATE PENETRATION
that means that the weld bead
extends from its face only to a
limited distance, less than
what is required by the
procedure.
NON-METALLIC
INCLUSIONS
(in Shielded Metal Arc
Welding) usually refer to
welding defects in the form
of slag being trapped in the
melt, generally meaning
insufficient skill of the
welder. Otherwise called
Slag inclusion
Arc strikes appear as
localized, re-melted metal from
inadvertent or careless arc
manipulation. They must be
avoided, and any traces
removed because small
cracks and their localized
heat-affected zone can
become the origin of
dangerous fatigue failures.
Overlapping is just reverse
to undercutting. An overlap
occurs when the molten
metal from the electrode
flows over the parent metal
surface, and remains there
without getting properly
fused and united with the
same.
Warpage and distortions
 CHART SHOWING DISCONTINUITIES IN SMAW AND THEIR CAUSES

DISCONTINUITY POSSIBLE CAUSES

Excessive Slow travel speed that allows weld metal to build up

Convexity Welding currents too low
Insufficient A combination of Travel speed to fast and current too high
Throat Improper placement of weld beads when multiple pass
welding

Undercut Amperage too high

Arc length too long increasing the force of the arc so that it
cuts into corners
Improper weld technique causing the corners to be left
unfilled or cut into
Groove joint not completely filled and overlapped
 DISCONTI- POSSIBLE CAUSES
NUITY

Insufficient Leg Using the wrong electrode angle causing the

Size weld to be deposited to heavily on one side
Using the wrong angle on multiple pas welds
Causing the welds to overlap incorrectly

Poor Amperage too low

Penetration Travel speeds too fast
Using too large an electrode for root of the joint
Improper electrode angle at the root of the joint
Improper weave technique
Using the wrong electrode for the desired joint
penetration: (using E-6013 instead of E-6010)
DISCONTINUITY POSSIBLE CAUSES
Poor Fusion Amperage too low
Travel speeds too fast
Improper electrode angle at the sides of the joint
Improper weave technique that does not allow
enough time at the sides of the joint
Using the wrong electrode for the application
Overlap Amperage too low and /or travel speed too slow
Electrode too large with low currents
Dirty base metal painted or galvanized surfaces
Porosity
Arc length too long especially with E-7018
Electrodes
Moisture in low hydrogen electrodes
Wind or fans strong enough to break down the
shielding gas
 DISCONTI-
POSSIBLE CAUSES
NUITY
Slag Inclusions Improper manipulation of the electrode
especially with E-6013
Improper cleaning and slag removal between
multiple pass welds
Cracks Using the wrong Electrode for the application
Using Excessively high amperage on some metals

Excessive Amperage too high

Spatter Electrode angle too extreme
Arc length too long
Good and bad welds

Bad weld
Bad weld
Bad weld
Good weld
Good weld
 Welding Codes
• American Society of Mechanical Engineers
(ASME)
• American Welding Society (AWS) Standards
• American Petroleum Institute (API) Standards
 American Society of Mechanical
Engineers (ASME)
Rules for Construction of Power
ASME BPVC Section I
Boilers

Part C: Specifications for Welding

ASME BPVC Section II
Rods, Electrodes and Filler Metals.[a]

Rules for Constructions of Nuclear

Facility Components-Subsection NCA-
ASME BPVC Section III
General Requirements for Division 1
and Division 2

Rules for Construction of Heating

ASME BPVC Section IV
Boilers

ASME BPVC Section V Nondestructive Examination

 Rules for Construction of Pressure
ASME BPVC Section VIII
Vessels Division 1 and Division 2

ASME BPVC Section IX Welding and Brazing Qualifications

ASME B16.25 Buttwelding ends

ASME B31.1 Power Piping

ASME B31.3 Process Piping

ASME B31.9 Building Services Piping

American Welding Society (AWS)
Standards
Standard symbols for welding, brazing,
AWS A2.4
and non-destructive examination

AWS A3.0 Standard welding terms and definitions

Specification for carbon steel

AWS A5.1 electrodes for shielded metal arc
welding
Specification for carbon steel
AWS A5.18 electrodes and rods for gas shielded
arc welding
Guide for the nondestructive
AWS B1.10
examination of welds
Specification for Welding Procedure
AWS B2.1
and Performance Qualification
AWS D1.1 Structural welding (steel)
AWS D1.2 Structural welding (aluminum)

AWS D1.3 Structural welding (sheet steel)

AWS D1.4 Structural welding (reinforcing steel)

AWS D1.5 Bridge welding

AWS D1.6 Structural welding (stainless steel)

Structural welding (strengthening and

AWS D1.7
repair)

AWS D1.8 Structural welding seismic supplement

AWS D1.9 Structural welding (titanium)

Underwater welding (Offshore & inland

AWS D3.6R
pipelines)

AWS D8.1 Automotive spot welding

Automotive spot welding electrodes

AWS D8.6
supplement

Automotive spot welding

AWS D8.7
recommendations supplement

AWS D8.8 Automotive arc welding (steel)

AWS D8.9 Automotive spot weld testing

AWS D8.14 Automotive arc welding (aluminum)

AWS D9.1 Sheet metal welding

AWS D10.10 Heating practices for pipe and tube

AWS D10.11 Root pass welding for pipe

AWS D10.12 Pipe welding (mild steel)

AWS D10.13 Tube brazing (copper)

AWS D10.18 Pipe welding (stainless steel)

AWS D11.2 Welding (cast iron)

AWS D14.1 Industrial mill crane welding

Earthmoving & agricultural equipment

AWS D14.3
welding

AWS D14.4 Machinery joint welding

AWS D14.5 Press welding

AWS D14.6 Rotating Elements of Equipment

Specification for the Welding of

AWS D14.9
Hydraulic Cylinders

AWS D15.1 Railroad welding

AWS D15.2 Railroad welding practice supplement

AWS D16.1 Robotic arc welding safety

AWS D16.2 Robotic arc welding system installation

AWS D16.3 Robotic arc welding risk assessment

Robotic arc welder operator

AWS D16.4
qualification

AWS D17.1 Aerospace fusion welding

AWS D17.2 Aerospace resistance welding

Aerospace friction stir welding

AWS D17.3
(aluminum)

AWS D18.1 Hygienic tube welding (stainless steel)

Stainless steel tube discoloration

AWS D18.2
guide

AWS D18.3 Hygienic equipment welding

American Petroleum Institute (API)
Standards

API RP 577 Welding Inspection and Metallurgy

Welding Guidelines for the Chemical,

API RP 582
Oil, and Gas Industries

Welding of pipelines and related

API 1104
facilities

Basic Inspection Requirements for

API 1169
New Pipeline Construction
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
List_of_welding_codes
Maraming Salamat po
Thank you! ! !