Week 5

Chemistry and Behavior of Fire

Learning Objectives
1. Describe the difference between a point of
entry in contact fire and distance of firing
2. Recognize the importance and relevance of
gunshot residue as evidence in criminal
investigation by identifying through its (point of
entry) the distance, caliber of gun used and the
position of the firer from the victim.
3. Differentiate combustion, nature and behavior
of fire
4. Distinguish the source of ignition; and
5. Analyze the different laboratory identification
of arson evidence.
• Continuation
• Distance Determination – gunpowder
examination of clothing for possible
gunshot range determination. The size
and density of the pattern of gunpowder
residue found on the clothing are the
main factors considered in determining
the approximate distance of the shooter
to the victim. As the distance to the
victim increases, the size of pattern
expands while density decreases and
vice-versa.
• Usually distance is based on the powder pattern or the
spread of the shot pattern.
 Clothing submitted to the laboratory will be examined to
determine if a pattern of gunshot residues is present.
There are basically three steps taken by the forensic
chemical officer to process an item for the presence of
gunshot residue. The first step is to visually and
microscopically examine the evidence. The presence of
any gunshot residues found around the bullet hole as
well as the shape and appearance of the hole will be
documented. The next two steps involve chemically
processing the exhibit for gunshot residues.
• Importance of Distance determination
1. In connection of self-defense pleas.
2. In the distinction between the murder and
suicide. It is often possible to state of
considerable certainty the distance of the gun
from the target by the study of patterns and
residues left on the target. Not only the type of
gun, but the condition and type of ammunition
will affect this pattern.
• In ascertaining the gunshot range, the examiner
should note and observe the entrance and exit
hole; and Powder residue pattern.
• Entrance and exit Hole
1.Bullet wipe residue. Entrance hole contains
gunpowder residue
2.The diameter of entrance hole is smaller
than the exit hole.
3.The exit hole is frayed outward while
entrance hole is inward.
4.Gaping hole (deep and wide open) where
the fabric is badly torn
• Other Entrance hole characteristics
1. Angled bullet entrance hole has elongated holes.
2. Contact fires have uneven margins other
distance fires typically have an even margin
3. Blackened area surrounding the hole. The
presence of partially burned powder residues
around the entrance hole.
4. Grazing bullet hole (several small holes created
from a folded garment).
5. Bullet hole examination may yield presence for
lead and copper
• Classification of gunshot distance
1. Burning (direct contact fire) - the principal damage due to
flame and muzzle blast is more visible than to the penetration
of bullet.
2. Singeing (1 to 2 inches) –slight burning
• 3.Smudging (Blotting/Staining)- produced when the gun is held
from about 2 inches to the maximum of 8 inches. The smoke
and soot from the burned pores will be deposited around the
hole of the entrance producing a dirty appearance and a
blackening of area around the bullet hole. This observation is
more pronounced when the ammunition used is black powder.
The size of the smudge depends on the following:
 Caliber of the gun
 Type of powder used
 Length of the barrel of the gun.
• 4.Tattooing (8 to 18 inches) - (black coarsely
peppered/sprinkled pattern). Individual specks of tattooing
around the hole are visible by the naked eye. The area of
blackening around the perforation will be found to diminish in
size as the muzzle of the gun is held further away from the
target. Blackening around the hole will completely disappear.
A few individual specks of tattooing will be visible with the
naked eye. The size of the area of powder tattooing will also
depend on
 Caliber of the gun
 Powder charge
 Distance of firing
• 5. Wounds inflicted at a distance of more than 36 inches.
Powder tattooing is seldom present and the nitrates present
will not be sufficient for GSR.
• If the firearm is discharged very close to the target as often happens in
suicide and occasionally in murder, burns or scorches often result. This is
caused by the flame that emerges from the gun muzzle and travels only
a short distance from it.
• The presence of scorch is an almost positive proof that the firearm was
discharged within a few inches of the object. It is rare to observe scorch
even 6 inches ahead of the muzzle.

• THREE ZONES OF DISTANCES FROM WHICH A FIREARM WAS DISCHARGED

•1.Those in which the muzzle of the gun was held directly in

contact with the body or practically so.
•Characteristic patterns observed are as follows:

a.Gaping hole where fabric is badly torn;

b.Smudging
c.Singeing of the fibers at the entrance;
d.And tattooing.
• . Those in which the muzzle of the gun was held
2 inches to 36 inches away.
• Held from 2 inches to 8 inches (maximum), the
smoke and soot from the burned powder will be
deposited around the hole of entrance producing a
dirty grimy appearance (covered with soot, dirt
adhering or embedded on the surface). The size of
the smudge depends upon the caliber of the gun, type
of powder used, length of the barrel, distance of the
muzzle of the gun was held from the body. The size of
the area of the powder tattooing will also depend on
the caliber, powder charge and distance of firing.
• 3. Those in which the muzzle of the gun was held beyond
36 inches.
• Held from 8 inches to 36 inches. Tattooing is visible.
The partially burned and unburned powder particles will be
driven into the surface around the gunshot hole producing a
black coarsely peppered pattern called tattooing.
Laboratory Examination Conducted
Color test
1. Harrison-Gilroy – test for the presence of lead, antimony and
barium
2. Sodium Rhodizonate test/ Griess Test – test for the presence
of nitrates
Contact Singeing Smudging Powder
tattooing
-Slightly burning
• Gunshot residue test results can be divided
into three categories:
 Those where a pattern of residues is found on
the evidence garment and the questioned
firearm and ammunition are recovered.
 Those where a pattern of residues is found on
the evidence garment and the firearm and
ammunition are not recovered.
 Those where only trace amounts or no
residues are found on the evidence garment
• Collection, Preservation and Transit of Specimen
• Collection of gunshot residue
1. Clothing removed from the victim should be carefully and
cautiously handled to prevent powder residues to dislodge
from the garment. Do not wad the garment.
2. Clothing heavily smeared with blood should be dried in
shed before packing
3. Secure the area to be tested between two layers of heavy
cardboard fastened together tightly to prevent the
specimen from becoming protrude in the transit.
4. Gun recovered from the scene of the crime and
ammunition available should be preserved.
5. Pack it loosely for shipment. Each specimen should be
wrapped and mark
• C. Firearm examination/ Examination of the probable time the
gun has been fired
• Lucas Test - a characteristic smell that decreases in intensity with
lapse of time and is observable immediately after firing. Sometimes
after several weeks some slight smell remains.
• Hydrogen Sulfide – another product of combusting gunpowder and
is present in the gaseous state that can be detected by means of a
lead acetate paper.
• If the breech of the gun is kept close, this persists between 2 to 3
hours after firing. The greater part disappears about 4 to 5 hours but
frequently, a trace is remained for sometimes linger, the longest
period is up to 10 hours.
• Rusting – as a rule does not commence for several days. No rust
can be detected inside the barrel if the gun was not fired. But if the
gun was fired, iron salts will be soon oxidized resulting in a formation
of rust. Rust formation is affected by humidity of the air so that in the
preparation of the result, the factor must always be considered.
• Nitrite – presence of NO2 is determined by the addition of diphenylamine
reagent. If the color becomes blue, nitrites are present and we may say
that the firearm could have been fired recently.
• Presence of nitrates – diminishes after a lapse of time. Can be detected
by swabbing a portion of residue in a barrel and mixed it with
diphenylamine reagent. If the color becomes yellow green, nitrates are
present and we may say that that the firearm could have been fired but
not recently.
• IV. Other Examination/ Instrumentation
• Examination of GSR can be classical as discuss earlier and instrumental
which uses various instruments to analyze the sample specimen.
• Some instruments used in detecting gunshot residue
1. AAS – Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer
2. NAA – Neutron Activation Analysis
3. SEM-EDX – Scanning Electron Microscope with Energy Dispersive X-ray
Analysis
4. ICP-MS – Inductively cooled Plasma with Mass Spectrophotometry.
• SEM-EDX has become excellent method for detection since the evidence
is not consumed during analysis. This analysis can reveal the actual
surface details of the particles examined and compare with a known
samples of gunshot residue and pictures of it can be taken. The amount of
unburned residue and contaminants is measured and compare with the
standards. Maximum time for this test is from 3 to 6 hours after firing.
• The X-ray analyzer attached can be beamed directly to the particles, so
EDX can be generated giving elemental composition of the particles.
(Nesbitt et al 1976). Today computer software is attached in SEM-EDX to
speed up the search for GSR-particles (Tillman 1987).
• ICP-MS is a faster method, although destructive (evidence is consumed)
but can give analytical result with high accuracy and sensitivity that can
give result as fast as 3 minutes excluding sampling.
• Many sophisticated method had been developed but the most important is
the mode of collection in order not to destroy the physical evidence. Other
factors affects when the firer moves, wash the body prior to examination
and delay of collection (Kilty 1975).
SECOND MEETING
• Arson and Spontaneous Combustion
• ARSON INVESTIGATION AND PRINCIPLES OF FIRE
Arson is one of the most heinous crimes committed by men. It is an offense of great
malignity and probably more destructive than murder.
1.Under the Old Common Law
• Arson is the willful and malicious burning of the house or house of another man.
Present laws on arson have extended the scope of the crime and cover all kinds of
buildings and structures even including personal property. Now the crime of arson
includes burning of one’s property.
2.Under the Revised Penal Code
• Arson is the destruction of property by fire and the extent of liabilities depends
on:
• Kind and character of the building
• Its location
• Extent of damage or value
• Its state of being inhabited or not.
3.According to Webster- Arson is the malicious burning of a dwelling or property.
4. Arson is the fire set intentionally.
• Arson is the crime of setting a fire with intent to
cause damage. According to the Federal Bureau of
Investigation (FBI), the United States has the highest
rate of arson in the world, and it is one of the fastest
growing crimes. Arson seen as a low priority crime;
so many arsons go unpunished or even unknown.
The criminal who illegally sets fire to property is an
arsonist.
• WHAT CONSTITUTE ARSON?

• 1. Willfulness – means intentional and implies that the act was done
purposely and intentionally
• 2. Intent- is the purpose or design with which the act is done and involves
the will. An essential element of crime, motive is not.
• 3.Motive – is the moving causes that induces the commission of a crime.
Something that leads or influences a person to do something.
• 4. Malice – denotes hatred or ill will or desire for revenge. It is the intent to
do injury to another.
•
• Deliberate intention of doing unjustified harm for the satisfaction of doing it
• 1. A fire can only be considered arson if all accidental and natural cause of fire can be
eliminated…The mere burning of a building does not constitute the body of the crime.

• 2. To prove the body of the crime it is necessary to show:

• a. 1st that the building in questioned burned.
• b. 2nd it was burned as a result of the intentional criminal act of the accused.
• c. To continue burning, there must be some burning or charring, that is the fiber of
the wood must be destroyed, its identity changed. It is not necessary the building be
seriously damaged. A mere smoking, scorching or discoloration of the wood is not
sufficient.
•
5.Deliberate intention of doing unjustified harm for the
satisfaction of doing it
• 1. A fire can only be considered arson if all accidental
and natural cause of fire can be eliminated…The mere
burning of a building does not constitute the body of the
crime.
• 2. To prove the body of the crime it is necessary to show:
• a. 1st that the building in questioned burned.
• b. 2nd it was burned as a result of the intentional
criminal act of the accused.
• c. To continue burning, there must be some burning
or charring, that is the fiber of the wood must be
destroyed, its identity changed. It is not necessary the
building be seriously damaged. A mere smoking,
scorching or discoloration of the wood is not sufficient.
•
• BASIC LINES OF INQUIRY IN THE INVESTIGATION OF ARSON
• Arson is the easiest crime to commit but the most difficult to detect,
tougher to solve than homicide. At least in a homicide there is some
kind of weapon, a gun, poison or the like and there is always the body-
good physical evidence. In arson physical evidence that normally aid in
convicting criminals may have been wholly destroyed by the fire itself.
• THE FOUR BASIC LINES OF INQUIRY IN THE INVESTIGATION OF
ARSON
• 1.Origin of fire 3. Identification of prime
suspect
• 2.Motive 4. Identification of fire setter
•
• Origin Of Fire – The first step in recognizing arson is the exclusion of
all accidental and natural causes of fire.
• 1. Natural cause without human intervention
• a. Lightning
• b. Explosion
• c. Spontaneous combustion
• d. Miscellaneous cause, example: damage to electric cables
• Origin Of Fire – The first step in recognizing arson is the
exclusion of all accidental and natural causes of fire.
• 1. Natural cause without human intervention
• a. Lightning
• b. Explosion
• c. Spontaneous combustion
• d. Miscellaneous cause, example: damage to electric
cables due to earthquake or storm; breaking of gas pipes,
etc.
• 2. Accidental cause with or without human intervention
• a. Faulty wiring
• b. Careless handling of inflammables
• c. Children playing with match
• d. Careless smokers
• e. Careless handling of electric iron, stoves, candles,
cigarette butts, mosquito coils
• 3. Arson or Touch Off fires (a set fire) – when all natural and
accidental causes have investigator to determine if it in fact a
“touch off” fire.
•
• TELL TALE SIGNS – sign that maybe obvious that one will suspect
arson
•
• a. Burned building – a type of the building may indicate a set fire
under some circumstances. A fire of considerable size at the time
the first apparatus arrive at the scene is suspicious if it is a modern
concrete or semi-concrete building.
• b. Separate fire – when two or more separate fires broke out
within a building the fire is certainly suspicious.
• c. Color of smoke – some fire burn with little or no smoke but
there are exception. The observation of the smoke must be made
at the start of the fire since once the fire has assumed a major
proportion, the value of smoke is lost because the smoke will not
indicate the materials used by the arsonists
• 1. White smoke – appears before the water comes in contact with
the fire indicates humid materials burning like burning hay, vegetable
materials, phosphorous (with garlic odor).
• 2. Biting smoke, irritating the nose and throat and causing
lacrymation and coughing – indicates presence of chlorine.
• 3. Black or grayish smoke – indicates lack of air but if accompanied
by large flame it indicated petroleum product and petroleum
products and rubber, tar, coat, turpentine.
• 4. Reddish brown smoke- indicates nitrocellulose, sulfur, sulfuric
acid. Nitric acid, hydrochloric acid.
• d. Color of flame – the color of the flame is a good indication of the
intensity of fire and sometimes of the nature of the combustible
substance present.
• Examples: burning alcohol- blue flame
• Burning petroleum products – red flame
• e. Size of fire –the size of the fire should be noticed at the time of
arrival and at subsequent intervals thereafter. Rapid extension of the
fire is indicative of the use of accelerants.
• f. Direction of travel – fire normally sweeps upward; the travel of fire is
predictable from knowledge of the construction of the building. Flames tend to
rise until on meeting obstacles they project horizontally seek other vertical
outlets. Extent and rate of travel depend primarily of the direction of the wind
and on ventilating condition like open doors and windows.
• g. Intensity – the degree of heat given off by a fire and the color of its flame
oftentimes indicate that some accelerants have been added to the material
normally present in a building.
• h. Location of flame – investigator should note whether there is more than
one apparent point of origin and should try to estimate the approximate
location of each.
• i. Odors – many accelerants emit characteristics odors especially liquid like
turpentine, alcohol, kerosene and gasoline.
•
• THE POINT OF ORIGIN OF THE FIRE – In case of arson it is in this area
that the physical evidence of criminal design is likely to be discovered. This
may be established by an examination of the witness and by inspecting the
debris at the fire scene or by both. The witness to be interrogated is the
discoverer of the fire and second the person who turned in the alarm and
lastly any other witness that can be found. Inspection of the crime scene must
immediately be made to determine the point of origin and possibly to establish
the arsonist’s technique.
• FIRE SETTING MECHANISM – the technique, devices and materials, employed
by the arsonist vary with his mentality and with his emotional condition
immediately prior to the commission of the offense. An arsonist may use the
simplest method in a match and some papers or he may use an elaborate means
to start the fire. He may use mechanical method or chemical method to start the
fire.

• TWO METHODS TO START THE FIRE

• 1.Mechanical Methods
• a. Matches
• b. Candles, cigarettes-slow burning initiating arrangement
• c. Mechanical devices as clock mechanism, altered equipment,
magnifying glass, animals tied to ignition devices like portable lamp or stove –
usually time delay arrangement.
• d. Electrical system/mishap –usually occurs in modern buildings that
are heavily equipped of electrical wirings to supply fixtures, machines and heating
purpose.
• e. Inflammable gases as illuminating gas, sewer gas.
• f. Heating appliances as heaters, sparkers – heaters like flat iron and
toaster, sparkles like electrical switches, door bells, telephone boxes.
• g. Explosives – nitroglycerine, TNT, mercury fulminate, gunpowder. Fire is a
common consequence of explosion. Nitroglycerine is the most commonly
employed.
• 2. Chemical Methods
• a. Hot water or ice bag used as
receptacle for phosphorous and water ignition
device.
• b. Metallic sodium ignited by drops of
water.
• c. Potassium chlorate, sugar and sulfuric
acid.
• d. Chemical devices as hermit bombs,
phosphorous
•
•
• Incendiary materials – are materials used to start a fire
and are combustible fuels.
• Arson chemicals – are incendiary materials often used
by arsonist as accelerants. Possess excellent incendiary
properties. Example: alcohol, benzene, petroleum ether,
gasoline, kerosene, naptha, turpentine.
• Gases as acetylene, butane, CO, ethylene, hydrogen,
natural gas and propane – these are common gases
resulting in fires from explosion. These when mixed with
air possess excellent ignition properties and when present
in an enclosed area can lead to explosion.
• Solids as chlorates, perchlorates, chromates,
bichromates, nitrates and permanganates – are typical
families of oxidizing agents that give off oxygen on
decomposition thus aiding in combustion.
Types of Arsonist
• 1.) Organized arsonists - elaborate incendiary devices
(electronic timing mechanisms, or initiators)
• - less physical evidence; if forced entry, it’s skillful and
methodical approach (excessive accelerant use and a
pattern in the attacks)
• 2.) Disorganized Arsonist - tend to use the materials at
hand and use more common accelerants such as gasoline
and usually more physical evidence left (footprints, finger
prints, etc..)
Different Motivation of Arsonist:
1. Vandalism (Intimidation and Economic disabling)
2. Excitement (Pyromania)
3. Revenge (Punitive Measure)
4.Crime Concealment
5. Profit (Economic Gain)
6. Extremist
7. Serial Arson
8. Spree and Mass Arson
• Investigation
• Determine that the fire is “suspicious origin” and merits a case-
solving investigation.
• Photograph the “burn pattern” by tracking damage and by
drawing sketches. All fires burn upward in an inverted conical
shape. The point of origin is usually therefore the lowest place.
Track from least damage to most damage.
• Theorize, calculate, and estimate time from ignition to flashover
• Develop leads as to who had motive, opportunity and means
• Research backgrounds of suspects (for their technical know-
how)
• Put main suspect under surveillance, use informants, or
interrogate suspect(s).
• Background study of policyholders, occupants of premises,
owner of the building or other persons having major interest in
the fire.
• Interviews and interrogation of the person who discovered the
fire, the one who turned the first alarm, firemen eyewitnesses.
 Arson Fires Indication
1. Arson fires are generally indicated by: burning faster and larger than
normal
2. Often having multiple points of origin
3. Use of accelerants
4. A time delay device (a matchbox and cigarette is a 22-minute fuse)
5. Cans and containers sometimes nearby.
6. Firemen are trained to “overhaul” the structure by ripping out cabinets,
.
spaces between standards, etc. to help investigator.
7. Heat can be estimated by the condition of window glass: small shards of
glass means an explosion took place
8. “Crazing” means a hot fire
9. Melted copper, aluminum and other metals usually means an accelerant
was used.
10.Soot that wipes off easily from glass or slightly charred studs behind the
walls means a quick fire
Disgruntled ex-employees, ex-renters, transients, and juveniles are the
usual suspects, unless a professional arsonist.
FIRE
Fire is burning, which is combustion, and combustion
is a type of oxidation reaction. Oxidation means
combined chemically with oxygen. Oxidation is an
exothermic reaction, meaning it gives/ releases heat
energy. The heat and light produced is a form of
energy.
Three key Elements to have a fire
FUEL
AIR
HEAT

Fire Triangle Explosive Triangle

fuel 1. Fuel
heat source 2. Ignition
Oxidant 3. Oxidant
The Fire Tetrahedron (A pyramid)
concept of fire was symbolized by the Triangle of Combustion and
represented, fuel, heat, and oxygen.
fire research determined that a fourth element, a chemical chain
reaction, was a necessary component of fire.
.
.
Stages of a Fire

1.The incipient stage is a region where preheating, distillation and slow

pyrolysis are in progress.
2.The smoldering stage is a region of fully developed pyrolysis that
begins with ignition and includes the initial stage of combustion.
3.The flaming stage is a region of rapid reaction that covers the period
of initial occurrence of flame to a fully developed fire.
Classes of fire: Combustible and flammable fuels involved in fires
have been broken down into five categories:
Class A fires - are fires involving organic solids like paper, wood,
Esc
Class B fires - are fires involving flammable Liquids.
Class C fires - are fires involving flammable Gasses
Class D fires - are fires involving Metals.
Class F fires - are fires involving Cooking oils.

COMBUSTION, NATURE AND BEHAVIOR OF FIRE

Matter – elements and compounds: composed of atoms
combined forming molecules.
Air – composed of 21% oxygen and 75% Nitrogen
 Oxidation – is a combination of elements and compounds with
oxygen producing stable substances.
Combustion - is a burning reaction in which a substance combines
with a gas. Heat and light usually accompanied by combustion
reaction and most of this reaction involve oxygen. Example:
Hydrogen combine with oxygen will undergo rapid oxidation
produces water and heat.

2H2 + O2  2H2O + H (exothermic reaction)

S (raw fuels) + O2  SO2 (asphyxiating effect)
The Combustion Modes: The combustion process occurs in two modes:
 The flaming

 The non-flaming, smoldering or glowing embers.

 Flaming combustion can occur in the following forms:
a. Premixed flames
b. Diffusion flames
Pyrolysis – comes from the Greek word pyro (fire) and lysis
(decompose). Process of decomposition of material to simpler
compounds brought by heat from fire.
Flame is a gaseous reaction where plume of hot gases rises by
convection when air and its oxygen maintain by solid (soot) or liquid
(aerosol) in a closed room.
Two types of combustion
1. Flaming – destructive, gaseous combustion where both the fuel and
oxidizer are gases. Flaming fire will achieve when gas or vapor is
continuously burning.
2. Glowing – absence of fire but presence of very hot materials on surface
of which combustion is proceeding.
Two process of combustion
Complete combustion – all of the reactants are consumed
C + O2  CO2

Incomplete combustion – only some parts of the reactant were consumed

C + O2  CO + O
Color of smoke:
White – humid materials
Light gray – hay and vegetable matter
Black – lack of air with high flames usually petroleum based.
Reddish brown/ thick yellow/ brownish yellow - nitrocellulose fires, sulfur and
sulfuric, nitric or other chemicals.
HEAT:
The heat generated intensifies the fire.
Rate of reaction: as the temperature increases, the speed of reaction
increases. The relationship between heat and rate/ speed of fire is directly
proportional.
Temperature - is a form of energy in kinetic form.
Heat release rate/ Heat flux: measurement of heat usually expressed in BTU
or British Thermal Units or Joules: 1 BTU = 252 cal = 1055 joules.
Heat flux – rate of which heat is falling upon a surface (passing through an
 Application of heat to fire investigation:
Heat as applied for igniting fire
Heat as applied for increasing rate of chemical reaction
Transfer of Heat
Conduction – transfer by contact between moving molecules
from hot to cold areas
Convection – distribution of heat by circulating medium
Radiation – critical where aids fire spread and promotes
ignition of other fuels.
Two types of heat reaction:
exothermic – heat is released from the system.
endothermic – heat is absorbed to the system
FLAMMABLE SUBSTANCE/ FUEL
3 states of fuel:
Liquid -Gasoline liquid does not burn (no fire) when in liquid
state but easily vaporize.

Gases - Vapor burns like any gas by mixing with oxygen

and combusting as a flame.

Solid
Carbon/ Organic compounds
LABORATORY IDENTIFICATION
Contaminants: vehicles, personnel, equipment, hoses and large
quantity of water.
Recognition, Collection and Preservation of physical evidence
In recognition of fire, first is to identify the origin. In this place, many
evidence can be recovered such as partially and unburned fuels. This is usually
trapped in crevices or trapped under the collapsed chimneys etc.
In collecting physical evidence such as debris, used your nose if a
vapor detector is not available, collect as many as you can until the container is
quarterly unfilled. This way, volatile accelerates will prevent from evaporation
and do not escape as the cover opened.
Color test using “Sudan Black”. On this process the accelerants were allowed to
evaporate and the vapor was reacted with this chemical until pink coloration
will indicate the presence of any accelerant.
Confirmatory examination: The distillate is analyzed in one of the following
instruments:
a. Gas chromatography with Headspace – used to detect volatile
accelerants by comparing it with known standard such as kerosene, gasoline
etc.
b. Gas-Liquid-Chromatography
c. High Performance Liquid Chromatography
 WEEK 7
• LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Discuss what is dangerous drugs
2. Differentiate the classification of dangerous
drugs
3. Distinguish the different methods of
examination
4. Evaluate the different dangerous drugs and its
effect to the society and impact to criminality
Chemistry of Dangerous Drugs and Its Toxicity
Conduct qualitative and quantitative examination of
dangerous drugs, volatile substances and drug
paraphernalia
Drug is a substance other than food intended to affect the
function of the human body.
Drug evidence consists of any legal or illegal substance
controlled by law. The evidence may consist of large quantities of
the drug, or trace amounts such as powder on a spoon.
Dangerous Drugs
Any substance listed in RA 9165. A substance affecting the Central Nervous System
which when taken into the human body brings about physical, emotional or
behavioral changes in a person taking it.

CLASSIFICATION OF DANGEROUS DRUGS

According to Source

1. Natural Drugs
2. Semi-synthetic drugs
3. Synthetic drugs
4. Designer drugs
According to its effect (Pharmacological)

1. Depressant (narcotics, barbiturates, tranquilizers and

sedatives)-downers
Calm down the activities of the user
2. Stimulants (uppers) – (Cocaine, Amphetamines, Nicotine,
Caffeine)
increase alertness in the activity of the user
3. Hallucinogens (psychedelics) (Marijuana, LSD)
- any of a group of substance that alter consciousness, also
called psychotomimetic (i.e. mimicking psychosis)
 a. Mescaline, or peyote, which comes from the cactus Lophophora
williamsi; is a small, spineless cactus in which the principal active ingredient
is mescaline.
b. Psilocin and psilocybin, from the mushrooms Psilocybe
Mexicana and stropharia cubensis;

c. LSD, synthesized from lysergic acid, found in the

fungus Claviceps purpurea.
Was discovered in 1938 and is manufactured as
lysergic acid, which is found in ergot, a fungus that
grows in rye and other grains.
d. PCP (phencyclidine, or “angel dust”), a drug
originally used as an anesthetic;
A white crystalline powder that is readily soluble in
water or alcohol. It has a distinctive bitter chemical taste;
 e. MDMA(“ecstacy”), an amphetamine derivative, were common in the
1980’s;
Popularly known as ecstasy or, more recently, as Molly, is a synthetic
psychoactive drug that has similarities to both the stimulant amphetamine
and the hallucinogen mescaline;
f. Marijuana has hallucinogenic properties but is pharmacologically distinct.
-The effects of smoking marijuana fade quickly, but the drug, known
as “weed” also known as the starting point of all drug dependency
g. Inhalants (gasoline, glues, thinner, paste, solvents)
-Industrial products meant not to be taken by man
4. Other Classifications (LegaL)
RA 9165
RA 6425:
1. Prohibited ( e.g. narcotics, hallucinogens)
2. Regulated (barbiturates, hypnotics, amphetamine)
PD1619
Volatile substance
Examples:
Toluene from Rugby, Ethyl acetate and solvents from adhesive
formulations, Gasoline, paint thinner and other accelerants.
DRUG CONTROL AGENCIES

a. Dangerous Drugs Board

b. Philippine Drug Enforcement Agency
c. Philippine National Police
d. National Bureau of Investigation
e. Bureau of Customs
f. Philippine Coast Guard
g. Other investigative Agency
 Standard Operating Procedures in Seized Drug
Examination

 Receiving of request for laboratory examination by the duty

examiner/receiving personnel.
 Examination using qualitative and/or quantitative method.
 Report writing of the result of examination
 Evidence storage via chain of custody forms
 Receipt of laboratory result by the requesting party for inquest
purposes.
 Retrieval of laboratory report and evidence for court
presentation
 Disposal
 Bringing Drug Evidence to Crime Laboratory

Evidence either in:

1. powders/crystals
2. Tablets and capsules
3.Living plants or dried
4.Liquids

Actual weighing of bulk evidence must be witness by a requesting party

-Initial laboratory report is available after 2 hrs of receipt of request.

“Within 24 hours upon seizure, drugs must be submitted to a Forensic

Laboratory for examination”

Upon seizure of drugs, controlled substance and paraphernalia

 Inventory and photograph the item (suspect, media, DOJ, elected public
official)
 Properly marked and sealed
 Estimate the weight
 Clandestine Laboratory

 Small (1-10kg)
 Medium (11-50kg)
 Large scale (51kg above

Request for laboratory examination/qualitative analysis:

Example: One(1) heat-sealed transparent plastic bag with markings

“….” containing white crystalline substance

-Sampling Method of Seized Dangerous Drugs

*Scooping from the top
*Sample Thief
*Coning and Quartering
Source of drugs:
-street drugs
-prescription drugs
-chemically engineered designer drugs in the form of liquids,
powders, residues and plant material are identified.
 Qualitative Analysis – is the determination or
identification of substance present in the sample
Quantitative Analysis – is the determination of the
absolute or relative amount /substance purity in the
sample.
Drug Test – the process of determining the presence of a
drug and its metabolites in body fluids.

As an expert witness, the analyst presents his/her

findings in a court of law.

Quantitative Analysis stated in RA 9165 is

determination of weight of the substance and not the
purity.
Percent purity (quantitative examination) shall be
conducted only by virtue of court order.
Methods of Examinations:
Three (3) Stages of Qualitative Examination
A. Physical Test
1. Description of sample
2. Weight determination
Gross weight, net weight
3. Microscopic examination
B. Chemical or Presumptive Test
-Color test is the addition of specific reagents to
sample specimen.
An indication on the presence of a certain substance
 Preliminary tests:
DRUG TEST USED REACTION NOTED
Opium & its Marquis Purple or violet color
derivatives

Heroin Nitric Acid Yellow to green color

Morphine Nitric Acid Red orange to yellow color
Cocaine Cobalt thiocyanate Blue precipitate
Barbiturates Dille-Koppanyi Violet color
Amphetamine Marquis Red orange to dark brown
Methamphetamine Simon Blue
HCL

Marijuana Duquenois-Levine Violet color

It should be emphasized that positive results of these tests are
NOT conclusive. Confirmatory tests have to be performed by
the Forensic Chemist/Forensic Chemical Officer on case to
established the presence and identification of drug.

Confirmatory Tests:
There are several methods available for the examiner to confirm the
results of the preliminary tests. A technique much more specific than
colour tests is dissolved in few drops of a solvent on a slide. Then a
reagent is added, forming crystal characteristics of the drug. This is
observed under the microscope.
The ultra violet (UV) and infrared (IR) spectrophotometers and the gas
chromatograph can also be used for positive identification of the drugs.
Another method commonly employed is the thin layer chromatograph (TLC) that
is rapid, sensitive and easy to use and less expensive.
TESTING DRUGS OF ABUSE
Testing for drugs of abuse or” drugs of abuse screening” is the detection of
presence of both legal and illegal substances of the body. The rate of
excretion from the body depends on the drug’s solubility in fat. Water soluble
drugs (such as cocaine) are excreted quickly, while fat soluble drugs (such
as marijuana) may take several weeks or months before excretion.

Examine urine and other body fluids for drug metabolites.

 PNP Mass promotions

 PNP Recruitment
 PNP Re-enlistment
 Persons apprehended under RA 9165
 PNP firearms/Permit to Carry
 Other government employee under drug investigation
 Mandatory Drug Testing
 Drivers and firearms license, military and law enforcers, persons
apprehended under RA 9165.
Random Drug Testing
 Students, office personnel, government employees and private company
 Each reason for testing has its own requirements regarding
- which drug to include in the test,
- How fast the results are needed;
- How specific (what drugs are detected by the test) and;
- How sensitive (what is the lowest amount detected) the test must
be.
 Urine is the most frequently tested sample, but other body samples
(matrices) also may be used for drug abuse screening.
 Drug compounds in these other matrices are primarily the parent
(original) drugs not metabolites, and they reflect a different “window”
(time period) of drug use.
 Validity Test for Urine
Validity test is conducted to determine the integrity of the samples.
Reasons for Conducting Validity Tests
-In cases of unobserved urine collection
- When there is suspicion that the urine specimen has
been tampered
Instances when to allow Unobserved Urine Specimen Collection
- When donor is physically unable to go to the laboratory
- When donor is involved in a crime scene
- When donor is involved in post-accident trauma
- When donor is critically ill
Different Types of Tampered Urine Specimen
a. Adulterated – a specimen containing either a
substance that is not a normal constituent for that type of specimen or
containing an endogenous substance at a concentration that is not a
normal physiological concentration.
b. Diluted – refers to a specimen with less than normal
physiological constituents.
c. Substituted – a specimen which has been derived
through switching or replacement of the original sample.
Ways to Adulterate Urine Samples
- Addition of salt
- Addition of juice
- Addition of detergent
- Addition of bleach and other oxidizing adulterants
- Addition of illicit drugs
Ways to Substitute a Urine Sample
- Urine from friends or other persons not using drugs may be used as
substitute specimen
- Replace sample with other substance similar to urine in appearance
Ways to Dilute a Urine Specimen
a. Internal Dilution (Intake of water prior to collection; drinking herbal tea,
etc.)
b. External Dilution (Addition of water to previously collected urine)
When do we consider a Urine specimen as Invalid?
A urine specimen is considered invalid under the following
circumstances:
- Adulterated, substituted or diluted
- Improperly collected, handled or stored
 ADULTERATION
Impurity – present as natural result of the manufacturing
process.
Adulterants – (cutting agents) drugs/any substance added to
mimic the effects of drug or done to increase profits.
Diluents –inert substance added to bulk out the deal and
assists the process for injection.
Common drugs in the market today:
 Cannabis or commonly known as Marijuana or Indian Hemp
-Is used to induced sleep
- Most active ingredient is tetrahydrocannabinol found in the
highest concentration in the resin (Hashish) of the top female
Cannabis sativa plant.
- When smoked effects are experienced within minutes with brief
duration
- oral consumption (tea; cookies) delayed onset and longer duration
-Effects depend on the dose consumed, personality of the user and his
anticipations, and the social setting in which the drug is experienced
(Circumstances)
 Methamphetamine hydrochloride or commonly known as
“Shabu”, “Ice”, “Meth”
 Opium –refers to the coagulated juice of the opium poppy
(Papaver Somniferum L.)
 Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) or commonly
known as “Ecstacy”
-a synthetic amphetamine relative. Gain popularity as a
recreational drug
Street Names: X, Rave, Love, Drug, Flying Saucer, LBD,
“Libido”, jagged Little Pill, Artist Drug, MDA, MDEA, Dance
Drug
 Amphetamine Type Stimulants – refer to a group of drugs
whose principal members include amphetamine and
methamphetamine (WHO definition);
-Aside from Meth, a range of other substances also fall into
this group such as: methcathinone, fenethyline captagon,
ephedrine, pseudoephedrine, and methylphenidate
-Trend of Methamphetamine Smuggling either by skillful
History of Methylamphetamine Hydrochloride (shabu)
manufacture

Methylamphetamine was originally synthesized from

Ephedrine in Japan by Dr Nagayoshi Nagai (1888).
And was later synthesized in crystalline form in 1919 by
Akira Ogata via Iodoephedrine method
It is since 1941 during the World War 2 that
Methamphetamine had been manufactured and sold for
medical supplies in Japan.
Immediately following World War II, Crystal Meth was
extensively used to reduce fatigue and suppress appetite
After the war era, Meth tablets, referred to as “work pills”
were widely used in Japan.
 Drug Addiction/Substance Abuse – is a compulsive
need for a particular substance or activity.
 Addictions of any sort are destructive in that they deprive
the addict of the ability to exercise control over his/her life.
 By definition, an addiction offers no choice to the addict
and often is the direct cause of serious disruption in the
person’s health or lifestyle.
 The most serious drug addictions of all, involve
psychoactive drugs.
 These substances radically alter the user’s mind and body,
undermining health, economic stability and social
functioning.
 It is this form of addiction and abuse that most immediately
threatens all of society and demands immediate attention
 Withdrawal - Withdrawal symptoms may begin and it is said that,
having once had these symptoms the fear of ever having them again is
something which drives the narcotic addict forward in his addiction.
 The withdrawal symptoms may begin as early as 6-8 hours following
cessation of the drug or as late as 24-48 hours, depending upon the
particular drug being used.
 The length of the period of withdrawal symptoms likewise may vary and
can last up to 10 days.
 The intensity of the withdrawal symptoms is related to the amount of the
drug which is necessary to keep going or to prevent the symptoms from
appearing i.e. the amount of physical dependence on the drug is related
to the amount necessary to obtain the desired feeling.
 In the early stages of the withdrawal symptoms there are chilliness, a
sensation of cold and a feeling of uneasiness and yawning.
 Rhinorrhea is usually present at this stage. With the passage of time
respirations become labored and are short and rapid.
 The chilliness of the first stage is supplanted by goose-flesh.
 Lacrimation, gross tremors and mydriasis (an excessive dilation of the
pupil due to disease, trauma, or the use of drugs) are observed.
 Anorexia is observed throughout all stages.
 The 3rd stage is one of sleep which can last from 8 to 16 hours.
 Upon awakening, all of the previous symptoms seem more intense and to
these are added tachypnea, tachycardia, fever, hypertension, pain and
cramps in legs and abdomen, perspiration, vomiting and diarrhea and the
tremor is intensified.
 Newborn from addicted mothers may show withdrawal symptoms from 1
to 56 hours after birth and will require therapy.
 The neonatal symptoms are marked by hyperactivity, twitching,
convulsions, a high-pitched cry and the appearance of constantly being
hungry.

Factor Affecting the Presence of Drugs in the Body

1. Type of drugs and its clearance rate in urine
2. Frequency of intake
3. Metabolic rate
4. Route of administration
RA 9165 – An Act instituting the Comprehensive Dangerous
Drugs Act of 2002, repealing Republic Act No. 6425
otherwise known as “The Dangerous Drug Act of 1972, as
amended.
Pertinent Sections and Provisions
Section 4 – Importation of Dangerous drugs and/or Controlled Precursors and
Essential Chemicals-life imprisonment to death and a fine ranging from
Ph500,000 to Ph10,000,000
Section 5–Sale, Trading, Administration, Dispensation, Delivery, Distribution
and Transportation – life imprisonment to death and a fine ranging from
Ph500,000 to Ph10,000,000
Section 6- Maintenance of Den, Dive or Resort … – life imprisonment to death
and a fine ranging from Ph500,000 to Ph10,000,000
Section 7 – Employees and Visitors of a Den, Dive or Resort. – imprisonment
ranging from 12 years and one day to 20 years and a fine ranging from
Ph100,000 to Ph500,000
Section 8 – Manufacture… –life imprisonment to death and a fine ranging from
Ph500,000 to 10,000,000
 Section 9 – Illegal Chemical Diversion of Controlled Precursors and
Essential Chemicals- Imprisonment from 12 years and one day to 20
years and fine ranging from Ph100,000 to Ph500,000
Section 10 - Manufacturer of Delivery of equipment, Instrument,
Apparatus and other Paraphernalia…- Imprisonment from 12 years and
one day to 20 years and fine ranging from Ph100,000 to Ph500,000
Section 11 – Possession…- Penalty of life imprisonment to death and a
fine ranging from Ph500,000 to Ph10,000,000 corresponding to recorded
quantity:
10 gms or more opium, morphine, heroin, and cocaine hydrochloride
50 grams or more of methamphetamine hydrochloride
10 grams or more marijuana resin or marijuana resin oil
500 grams or more marijuana
10 grams or more of other dangerous drugs such as but not
limited to, MDMA or Ecstacy
trimethoxyamphetamine (TMA).
Otherwise, if the quantity involved is less than the foregoing quantities, the
penalties shall be graduated.
Section 15- Use of Dangerous Drugs – A person apprehended or arrested, who
is found to be positive for use of any dangerous drugs after confirmatory test,
shall be imposed a penalty of a minimum of 6 months’ rehabilitation in a
government center for the first offense. If apprehended for the second time, he
or she will suffer the penalty of imprisonment ranging from 6 years and one day
to 12 years and a fine ranging from Ph50,000 to Ph200,000
Section 16 – Cultivation or Culture of Plants classified as Dangerous Drugs
Section 18 – Unnecessary Prescription…
Section 19 – Unlawful Prescription.
Section 21 –Custody and Disposition of Confiscated, Seized and/or
Surrendered…
Section 22 – Grant of Compensation, Reward and Award
Section 23 – Plea Bargaining Provision
Section 29 – Criminal Liability for Planting of Evidence
Section 30 – Criminal Liability of Officers of Partnerships, Corporations,
Associations or other Juridical Entities
Section 31 – Additional Penalties if offender is alien
Section 33 – Immunity from Prosecution and Punishment
SPECIAL TOPIC—DANCE DRUG
Dance Drug – a drug associated with the “rave” or “dance party”
scene that grew out of the “acid house” scene in the United Kingdom in the
late 1980’s. Raves are now also a popular form of entertainment among
young people in mainland Europe, North America, Australia and elsewhere.
Most notable of “danced drugs” are MDMA (ecstacy), amphetamine and
LSD, ketamine, cocaine and alkyl nitrate have also been associated with
raves.
Chemical Combination: Mescaline – hallucinogenic
LSD - hallucinogenic
Methamphetamine – stimulant
Physical Form : Tablet, capsule, Powder (from capsule)
Shape: Round, Flat, oval
Color: White (most potent, pure) yellow, brown
Taste: Bitter
Dose: Whole tablet – 1 “hit” (last for about 3-5 hours) –typical dose is
between 5 mg and 250 mg
One half tablet – half a “hit”
Cost: 1,200PhP per tablet (depending on its purity)
Immediate Physical Effects Felt By Users: Mild hallucinogenic effects.
Increased physical energy and emotional closeness to others (empathy),
the senses being enhanced and mood lightening. It facilitates
communication and increases sociability.
Long Term Regular Use:
Can lead to same effects as with other synthetic stimulants
Potential for neurotoxicity
Brain damage
Liver damage
Speed becomes groggy, gregarious, talkative, happy; everything seems
beautiful and glaring, increase heart rate and causes palpitation,
reverberating feeling, glassy eyes, heighten tactile (sense of touch) feeling,
floating, heighten sex urges, “sunset superman” effect (sustained and
prolonged erection). Delayed ejaculation, increased sweating.
After feeling of ecstacy, sudden drop of euphoria and depression comes in.
Long Term Physical Effects:
Psychosis ;Arrythmia
Same effects as with amphetamine
Psychological dependence
Depression
Activities Indulge Into After Taking
Sex (with single or multiple partners)
Mental intercourse (Jamming) sex talk
Music trip; Dance trip
Short Term Effects:
Restlessness; Anxiety
Pronounce visual and auditory hallucination at larger doses
Increased the blood pressure and heart rate
Causes nausea; Vomiting
Route of Administration
Oral ingestion- most popular
Snorting – user can feel faster effect but painful and irritating to the
nostrils
 Reasons for Being Preferred by Users:
As compared to other drugs:
1. Supersedes the effects of other drugs
2. They become friendlier
3. They can eat and sleep well if they want to
4. Easy to conceal
5. Sources: Place: USA, Europe, Canada, Australian
People: Airline Employees, elite, users themselves who can
frequently travel, no local manufacturers.
Profile of Users:
“Class A” People
“Yuppies” (Young Urban Professionals)
Spoiled brats
Recreational drug users (party goers, night owls)
Age range: 20’s – 40’s
 Extent of Use: Estimated to be about 400-500 people in
Metro Manila alone
Hang-Out of Users: Confidential
1. Disco houses – Frequented by “Class A” people (Ex.
Euphoria, Mars, Kampo, Chatterbox)
2. Beach Resorts – (frequented by tourists like Boracay,
Puerto Galera etc.)
Penalty:
Unauthorized possession or use, illegal manufacture,
sale, administration, dispensing, distribution, delivery,
transportation of the substance the penalty thereof is
reclusion perpetua, life to death and fine of PhP500,000 to
PhP10,000,000
-