CHAPTER 11: THE

NERVOUS SYSTEM
Unit A: Nervous and Endocrine Systems
 11.1
Structures and Processes of the Nervous System
Main Learning Objectives

■ Describe the role of the nervous system in homeostasis

■ Describe and observe the organization of neurons into nerves
■ Describe the structure and function of a reflex arc, and design and perform an
investigation to study reflex arcs
■ Explain the transmission of an action potential along a neuron and from one neuron to
another, and perform
■ Investigations that demonstrate the structure and function of neurons
■ Analyze and explain the effects of various drugs on the nervous system
Organization of the Human Body
http://anatomyandphysiologyi.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/levels-of-structural-organization.jpg

https://dr282zn36sxxg.cloudfront.net/datastreams/f-d%3Af49258ac09aaf3abb1a228c25749c1422c46205133362fbdb1837bfe%2BIMAGE_TINY%2BIMAGE_TINY.1
General Functions of the Nervous System

https://opentextbc.ca/anatomyandphysiology/wp-content/uploads/sites/142/2016/03/1205_Somatic_Autonomic
Homeostasis https://ka-perseus-images.s3.amazonaws.com/8528b0149aa08e36c0305fb9f259949d5984950d.png

■ The human nervous system is equipped to sense and respond to continuous

change within the body and in its external environment.
■ Homeostasis is a state of relative stability within the body; a state of
balance.
 Organization of the Nervous System
http://www.newhealthguide.org/images/10448556/image001.jpg

■ Together, the central nervous system and the

peripheral nervous system control sensory input,
integration, and motor output.
Organization of the Nervous System
http://www.newhealthguide.org/images/10448556/image001.jpg

■ The central nervous system, which consists of the

brain and spinal cord, integrates and processes
information sent by nerves.
Organization of the Nervous System
http://www.newhealthguide.org/images/10448556/image001.jpg

■ The peripheral nervous system includes nerves that carry

sensory messages to the central nervous system and nerves that
send information from the CNS to the muscles and glands.
■ The peripheral nervous system is further divided into the
somatic system and the autonomic system.
Organization of the Peripheral Nervous System
http://www.newhealthguide.org/images/10448556/image001.jpg

■ The somatic system consists of sensory receptors in the head and extremities, nerves that
carry sensory information to the central nervous system, and nerves that carry
instructions from the central nervous system to the skeletal muscles.
■ The autonomic system controls glandular secretions and the functioning of the smooth
and cardiac muscles.
– The sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic system often
work in opposition to each other to regulate the involuntary processes of the body.
Involuntary processes, such as heartbeat and peristalsis, are those that do not
require or involve conscious control.
Overview of Nervous System Divisions
Cells of the Nervous System
http://qthera.com/live/getattachment/Technology/Overview/q-thera-simplified-neuron-and-glia.png.aspx

■ Neurons are the basic structural and functional units of the nervous system. They are
specialized to respond to physical and chemical stimuli, to conduct electrochemical
signals, and to release chemicals that regulate various body processes.
■ Collectively, glial cells nourish the neurons, remove their wastes, and defend against
infection. Glial cells also provide a supporting framework for all the nervous-system
tissue.
Cells of the Nervous System

■ Schwann cells, a type of glial cell,

form the Myelin Sheath by
wrapping themselves around the
axon.
■ We will cover more about these
cells later on.
Nerve Fiber Structure
■ Neurons are bundled together into
nerves in the peripheral nervous
system and into tracts in the central
nervous system.
■ Nerves are macroscopic structures.
■ Neurons, however, are microscopic
structures.
■ Even a neuron that is over 1 m long
cannot be seen with the unaided
eye.
 Nerves of the Body

https://humananatomy-libs.com/nerves-of-the-body-diagram/
https://humananatomy-libs.com/leg-muscles-and-nerves/
The Funny Bone
■ Most nerves are buried deep in the body to protect them from injury, with only small extensions
that reach the outer skin. One exception is the ulnar nerve at the elbow, which runs close to the
surface of the skin. This is why a slight knock to your elbow sends an unpleasant tingling
sensation throughout your arm!

https://i.ytimg.com/vi/TPhVNmmGviM/maxresdefault.jpg
 3 Types of Neurons 1. Sensory neurons gather information
from the sensory receptors (senses)
and transmit these impulses to the
central nervous system (brain and
spinal cord).
2. Interneurons are found entirely
within the central nervous system.
They act as a link between the
sensory and motor neurons. They
process and integrate incoming
sensory information, and relay
outgoing motor information.
3. Motor neurons transmit information
http://images.slideplayer.com/16/5189136/slides/slide_8.jpg
from the central nervous system to
the muscles, glands, and other organs
(effectors).
Reflex Arcs
■ Reflex arcs are simple connections of neurons that explain reflexive behaviours.
■ Reflex arcs use very few neurons to transmit messages. As a result, reflexes can be very
rapid, occurring in about 50 ms (milliseconds).

Inquiry into Biology (2007)

 Reflex Arcs

Inquiry into Biology (2007)

■ Some reflexes don’t include the brain in the neural pathway.

■ In this example, the impulse carried by the sensory neuron then activates the
interneuron in the spinal cord. The interneuron signals the motor neuron to instruct the
muscle to contract and withdraw the hand.
■ This explains why sometimes you react to the stimulus before actually feeling the pain.
Cell Biology Review

http://www.biology-questions-and-answers.com/images/Cell-Structure.jpg
Basic Structure of a Neuron

https://askabiologist.asu.edu/sites/default/files/resources/articles/neuron_anatomy.jpg
Basic Structure of a Neuron
https://askabiologist.asu.edu/sites/default/files/resources/articles/neuron_anatomy.jpg

■ Dendrites are short, branching terminals that receive nerve impulses from other neurons or sensory
receptors, and relay the impulse to the cell body.
■ Cell body contains the nucleus and is the site of the cell’s metabolic reactions. The cell body also
processes input from the dendrites. If the input received is large enough, the cell body relays it to the
axon, where an impulse is initiated.
■ Axon conducts impulses away from the cell body. Axons range in length from 1 mm to 1 m,
depending on the neuron’s location in the body.
■ Schwann cells, a type of glial cell, form the myelin sheath by wrapping themselves around the axon.
White and Grey Matter

https://image.slidesharecdn.com/actionpotentials-animalsystems-141110120811-conversion-gate02/95/action-potentials-animal-systems-26-63
8.jpg?cb=1415621630
Basic Neural Impulse Pathway

Inquiry into Biology (2007)

Microscopic View of Neuron

Inquiry into Biology (2007)

Overview of Neurons

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HZh0A-lWSmY
Action Potentials

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OZG8M_ldA1M
Resting Membrane Potential

■ Sodium ions are in excess on the outside of the axon. This creates an overall positive charge.
■ Potassium ions are on the inside, but there are also negatively charged proteins. This creates an overall
negative charge.
■ The difference in charges establishes the resting membrane potential at -70 mV.
■ This potential allows for the possibility of conducting an impulse along the axon.
Inquiry into Biology (2007)
Resting Membrane
Potential
■ The sodium-potassium pump actively
transports sodium ions outside of the
neuron and potassium ions inside.
■ Its called active transport because it
requires ATP as energy and it is moving
ions against their concentration gradients.

Inquiry into Biology (2007)

Action Potentials (…again)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HYLyhXRp298
There is overlap of information but this video also shows the
action potential in terms of a time graph.
Action Potential Time Graph
■ Resting potential the potential difference across the
membrane in a resting neuron.
■ Depolarization occurs if the transmembrane potential is
reduced to less than the resting potential of −70 mV.
■ The potential difference of −55 mV is called the threshold
potential. The neuron must depolarize to at least this voltage
in order for an action potential to occur. Once that happens,
the action potential is an all or nothing event.
■ Repolarization occurs when the sodium channels close and
voltage-gated potassium channels open.
■ Hyperpolarization occurs because too much potassium
leaves the neuron.
■ The sodium potassium exchange pump and the small amount
of naturally occurring diffusion quickly bring the membrane
back to its normal resting potential of −70 mV. For the next
few milliseconds after an action potential, the membrane
cannot be stimulated to undergo another action potential.
This brief period of time is called the refractory period of the
Inquiry into Biology (2007)
Nerve Impulse Transmission

Inquiry into Biology (2007)

Neurilemma
https://o.quizlet.com/Yu39dG.5gaATlRAnWQzLaQ_m.jpg

■ The neurilemma allows for the possibility of regeneration of

damaged axons in the PNS
■ Neurilemma is not found in the CNS.
Synapse

Inquiry into Biology (2007)

 Synapse

■ The main
neurotransmitter we
will discuss is
Acetylcholine (ACh)
■ After ACh binds to
the receptor on the
post-synaptic neuron,
cholinesterase breaks
it down

Inquiry into Biology (2007)

Neuromuscular Junction: A Type of
Synapse

Inquiry into Biology (2007)

Other Neurotransmitters

Inquiry into Biology (2007)

Practice Questions
■ p.367 #1-3
■ p.370 #4-6
■ p.372 #7-8
■ p.374 #9-10
■ p.377 11-13
■ p.380 #14-16
■ p.382 #17-18
■ p.384 #1-8
 11.2
The Central Nervous System
Main Learning Objectives

■ Identify the principal structures of the central nervous system

■ Explain the functions of the spinal cord and various regions of the brain
■ Observe the principal features of the mammalian brain
■ Explain how technological advances in neuroscience can provide solutions to practical
problems
 CNS Overview

https://my-ms.org/images/brain_meninges_600px.jpg

Inquiry into Biology (2007)

http://www.sci-recovery.org/images/crosssection.jpg
The Spinal Cord
■ The spinal cord is a column of nerve
tissue that extends out of the skull
from the brain, and downward
through a canal within the backbone.
■ The spinal cord is a vital
communication link between the brain
and the peripheral nervous system.

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/28/Human_brain_and_spinal_cord.jpg
The Spinal Cord
https://www.google.ca/search?biw=1363&bih=780&tbm=isch&sa=1&q=spinal+cord+and+vertebrae+cross+section&oq=spinal+cord+and+vertebrae+cross+section&gs_l=psy-
ab.3..0i8i30k1l2.34532.43759.0.43919.14.13.0.0.0.0.409.1824.0j4j2j1j1.8.0....0...1.1.64.psy-ab..8.6.1351...0i7i30k1j0i7i5i30k1j0i8i7i30k1.Lf3FTjsVhdw#imgrc=NkMu1E8W4hO0kM:

■ Within the spinal cord, sensory nerves carry messages from the body to the brain
for interpretation, and motor nerves relay messages from the brain to the effectors.
■ The spinal cord is also the primary reflex centre, coordinating rapidly incoming
and outgoing neural information.
The Brain

Inquiry into Biology (2007)

The Brain

Inquiry into Biology (2007)

Blood Brain Barrier

Inquiry into Biology (2007)

The Cerebral Cortex

Inquiry into Biology (2007)

Lobes of the Brain

Inquiry into Biology (2007)

Structures of the
Brain and Their
Functions

Inquiry into Biology (2007)

Control of the Body
Practice Questions

■ P.395 #1-7
 11.3
The Peripheral Nervous System
Main Learning Objectives

■ Identify the principal components of the peripheral nervous system

■ Explain the role of the peripheral nervous system in regulating the somatic (voluntary)
and autonomic (involuntary) systems
■ Compare the functions of the sympathetic division and the parasympathetic division of
the autonomic nervous system
Somatic vs Autonomic Nervous System

http://quasargroupconsulting.com/Encyclopedia/anatomy/somaticVSautonomicnervous-system.jpg
 Somatic Nervous System
■ The somatic system includes
12 pairs of cranial nerves and
31 pairs of spinal nerves, all of
which are myelinated. The
cranial nerves are largely
associated with functions in
the head, neck, and face.
■ An exception is the vagus
nerve, which connects to many
internal organs, including the
heart, lung, bronchi, digestive
tract, liver, and pancreas.

Inquiry into Biology (2007)

Autonomic
Nervous
System

Inquiry into Biology (2007)

Practice Questions

■ p.399 #1-3 and 5 (skip #4, unless you want to do it)