Mechanics of Solids – I

Stresses Due to Combined Loadings

Prof. TVK Bhanuprakash

Dept of Marine Engineering
Andhra University
Visakhapatnam - 530003
Cylindrical pressure vessels, such as this gas tank, have semi-
spherical end caps rather than flat ones in order to reduce the
stress in the tank.
Introduction
1. We studied stress analysis of various structural
members carrying fundamental loads: bars with axial
loading, torsion of circular and thin-walled shafts, and
bending of beams.
2. In this chapter we study two additional topics.
A. The first deals with stresses in thin-walled pressure
vessels which introduces us to biaxial loading.
B. The second topic is combined axial and lateral loading
of bars which is a straightforward application of
superimposing stresses caused by an axial force and a
bending moment.
Intro (contd)
3. To design a load-carrying member, we need stress
components not only at any point in the member but also on
any plane passing through a point (referred to as knowing the
state of stress at a point. )
4. We analyze the state of stress at various points in members
that carry different combinations of the fundamental loads.
5. Strain is important in experimental studies because it can be
measured, whereas direct determination of stress is not
possible. However, as you will see, the state of stress at a point
can be calculated from the state of strain and the mechanical
properties of the material.
Thin-Walled Pressure Vessels
1. A pressure vessel is a pressurized container, often cylindrical
or spherical.
2. The pressure acting on the inner surface is resisted by tensile
stresses in the walls of the vessel.
3. If the wall thickness t is sufficiently small compared to the
radius r of the vessel, these stresses are almost uniform
throughout the wall thickness.
4. It can be shown that if r/t>=10, the stresses between the inner
and outer surfaces of the wall vary by less than 5%.
5. In this section we consider only vessels for which this
inequality applies.
A -Cylindrical vessels
1. Consider the cylindrical tank of inner radius r and wall
thickness t shown.
2. The tank contains a fluid (or gas) under pressure p.
3. In this simplified analysis, we assume that the weights of
the fluid and the vessel can be neglected compared to
the other forces that act on the vessel.
4. The tensile stresses in the wall that resist the internal
pressure are the longitudinal stress sL and the

circumferential stress sc (also known as the hoop

stress), as shown
Circumferential stress
Take a slice of infinitesimal length dx and cutting it in half along a
diametral plane. The FBD shows the forces acting on the element.

From equilibrium of
diametral plane
 t
Longitudinal Stress r =r+
2
Cylindrical pressure vessel made of curved sheets.
Spherical vessels
1. Because of symmetry, different directions on the surface of the sphere are
indistinguishable.
2. Therefore, the stress is constant throughout the vessel.
3. We use half of the vessel as the free-body diagram. The fluid is included in
the free-body diagram, but its weight is neglected together with the
weight of the vessel.
Sample Problem 1.
A cylindrical steel pressure vessel has hemispherical end-caps.
The inner radius of the vessel is 24 in. and the wall thickness is
constant at 0.25 in. When the vessel is pressurized to 125 psi,
determine the stresses and the change in the radius of (1) the
cylinder and (2) the end-caps. Use E = 29 x 106 psi and n = 0.28
for steel.
For the Cylinder

Circumferential Strain

Circumference is proportional to radius, therefore change in radius can be

obtained from the circumferential strain
For the cylindrical end-caps

Since the state is that of bi-axial stress,

Important Note on Incompatibility at the Joints
1. According to our analysis, the radii of the cylinder and the end-caps
change by different amounts.
2. Because this discrepancy is a violation of compatibility
(displacements and slopes of the walls must be continuous), we
conclude that our solution is not valid near the joints between the
cylinder and the end-caps.
3. Continuity of displacements and slopes requires the presence of
bending stresses in the vicinity of the joints.
4. The analysis of these bending stresses, which are localized in the
sense that they decay rapidly with distance from the joints (Saint
Venant’s principle), is beyond the scope of this text.
5. It can be shown that in this vessel the bending stresses become
insignificant approximately 5 in. from each joint.
Problem3
A hemispherical window (or viewport) in a decompression
chamber is subjected to an internal air pressure of 80 psi. The
port is attached to the wall of the chamber by 18 bolts. Find
the tensile force F in each bolt and the tensile stress s in the
viewport if the radius of the hemisphere is 7.0 in. and its
thickness is 1.0 in.
Solution

T total tensile force in 18 bolts

Force balance in horizontal direction gives
T - pA = 0
T = pA = p(pr2)
F = force in one bolt
F = T/18 = p(pr2) /18 =684 lb
Tensile stress in the viewport

pr
σ= = 280 psi
2t
Combined Loadings
When deformations are not negligible, moment due to P is also to be
considered

A tensile force P will reduce bending and a

compressive force P will increase bending stress
Sample Problem
To reduce interference, a link in a machine is designed so that its cross-
sectional area in the center section is reduced by one-half, as shown. The
thickness of the link is 50 mm. Given that P = 40 kN, (1) determine the
maximum and minimum values of the normal stress acting on section m-n;
and (2) sketch the stress distribution on section m-n.
Solution
Part 1
The free-body diagram shows that the internal force system at section m-n
can be represented as the normal force P acting at the centroid of the section
and the bending moment M = Pc. Therefore, the extremum values of the
normal stress are
Part 2
1. The stress distribution on section m-n is shown
2. The 20-MPa tensile stress due to P is uniformly distributed over the
entire cross section.
3. The bending moment M causes a linear stress distribution that reaches a
magnitude of 60 MPa in the extreme fibers (compression at the top and
tension at the bottom).
4. Superimposing the stresses due to P and M results in stress that varies
linearly between smax = 80 Mpa (at the bottom) and smin = 40 MPa (at the
top).
5. The distance between the line of zero stress and the top of the section can
be located from similar triangles: as d =13.33 mm.
Sample Problem 8.3
The wood beam ABCD carries two vertical loads. The beam is
supported by a pin at A and the horizontal cable CE. Determine the
magnitude of the largest stress (tensile or compressive) in the
beam and its location. Neglect the weight of the beam.
Solution
Preliminary Calculations
The cross-sectional dimensions of the beam are b = 6 in. and h = 10
in., which yield the following cross-sectional properties:
Equilibrium
1. Resolve all
the forces in
a direction
parallel and
perpendicul
ar to the
beam.
2. Draw the
axial force
diagram
and BM
diagram
1. Because the axial force is negative (compressive) everywhere in the beam, the
maximum compressive stress in the beam has a larger magnitude than the
maximum tensile stress.
2. Inspection of the axial force and bending moment diagrams leads us to conclude
that the largest compressive stress occurs either on the cross section immediately
below point B or on the cross section immediately below point C.
3. Which stress is larger can be determined by computing the stresses at both
sections.
4. At the section immediately below B, we have P = 13 400 lb and M = 6000 lb ft.
5. The maximum compressive stress sB occurs at the top of the section, where the
compressive stress caused by P adds to the maximum compressive stress caused
by the positive bending moment.
6. If we use y = h/2 = 5 in. this stress is
The axial force and the bending moment that act at the section
immediately below C are P = 9800 lb and M = 12 000 lb ft.
For this case, the maximum compressive stress sC occurs at the bottom of
the section, where the compressive stress caused by P adds to the
maximum compressive stress caused by the negative bending moment.
Using y =h/2 = 5 in. yields
 State of Stress at a Point (Plane Stress)
1. In this section, we formalize the concept of stress at a point,
which requires the introduction of a sign convention and a
subscript notation for stress components.
2. We know that the stresses acting at a point in a body depend
on the orientation of the reference plane.
1. Consider the body that is acted upon by a system of coplanar forces in
equilibrium.
2. Assume that we first introduce the reference plane a-a and compute the
stresses s and t acting on that plane at point O
3. We then pass the reference plane b-b through O and repeat the
computations, obtaining the stresses s0 and t0 shown.
4. In general, the two sets of stresses would not be equal, although they are
computed at the same point, because the resultant forces acting on the
two planes are not equal.
1. It is usually not practical to directly compute stresses acting
on arbitrarily chosen planes because the available formulas
give stresses on certain reference planes only.
2. For example, the flexure formula s = My/I is restricted to the
normal stress on the cross-sectional plane of the beam.
3. Similarly, the shear stress formulas, t = VQ/Ib for beams and
t = Tr/J for shafts, apply to only cross-sectional and
longitudinal (complementary) planes
Therefore, if a bar is subjected to simultaneous bending and twisting, we
can readily calculate the stresses on the sides of the element shown
because the sides coincide with the reference planes used in the
formulas.
1. The stresses s and t shown are not the maximum normal and
maximum shear stress that act at the location of the element.
2. As we shall see, the maximum values of these stresses occur on
planes that are inclined to the sides of the element.
3. Because maximum stresses are important in design, we must
examine how the stress components at a point vary with the
orientation of the reference planes, which is the subject of the
next section.
State of stress at a point
1. A basic concept of stress analysis is the state of stress at a point:
2. The state of stress at a point is defined by the stress components
acting on the sides of a differential volume element that encloses
the point.
3. Knowing the state of stress at a point enables us to calculate the
stress components that act on any plane passing through that
point.
4. This, in turn, enables us to find the maximum stresses in a body.
5. Therefore, a crucial step in evaluating the strength of a potential
design is to compute the states of stress at the critical points.
Transformation equations
1. Consider the state of plane stress at a point, where the reference planes
(faces of the element) are perpendicular to the x- and y-axes.
2. Now consider the state of stress at the same point, but now the faces of the
element are perpendicular to the x/- and y/-axes, where the orientation of
the two sets of axes differs by the angle q.
3. Positive q is measured in a counterclockwise direction from the x-axis to the
x/-axis.
4. The stress components in both figures are drawn in their positive
directions in accordance with the established sign convention.
5. We also use the equality of shear stresses on complementary planes in
labeling the figures.
6. The stress states shown are said to be equivalent because they represent
the same state of stress referred to two different sets of coordinate axes.
 These are called the stress
transformation
Equilibrium conditions equations

The normal stress in the y/ direction is

obtained by making q = q+90o
Another form of the stress transformation
equations

We can see that

Which means that the normal stress is invariant

Principal stresses and principal planes
1. The maximum and minimum normal stresses at a point are called
the principal stresses at that point.
2. The planes on which the principal stresses act are referred to as the
principal planes.
3. The directions that are perpendicular to the principal planes are
called the principal directions.
4. The values of the angle q that
dσ x ′ define the principal directions are
=0
found from the condition. dθ
This yields two solutions for 2q that differ by 180o. If we denote one
solution by 2q1, the second solution is 2q2 = 2q1 + 180. Hence, the two

principal directions differ by 90. The sines and cosines of 2q1 and 2q2 can
be obtained from the right triangle
 Maximum In-plane shear stress

There are two solutions for 2q that differ by 180o. Hence, there are two values of q
that differ by 90. The planes of maximum in-plane shear stress are inclined at 45
to the principal planes.

Normal stress on max

shear plane

Finally
Sample Problem 8.4
The state of plane stress at a point with respect to the xy-axes
is shown. Determine the equivalent state of stress with respect
to the x/ y/ axes. Show the results on a sketch of an element
aligned with the x/- and y/-axes
Solution
Sample Problem 5
Determine the principal stresses and the principal directions
for the state of plane stress given in Fig. Show the results on a
sketch of an element aligned with the principal directions
To determine which of the two angles is q1 (associated with s1)

and which is q2 (associated with s2), we compute the normal

stress sx/ that corresponds to one of the angles.

The result, which will be equal to either s1 or s2, identifies the

principal stress associated with that angle.
Sample Problem 6
For the state of plane stress shown in Fig, determine the
maximum in-plane shear stress and the planes on which it
acts. Show the results on a sketch of an element aligned
with the planes of maximum shear.
Mohr’s Circle for Plane Stress

1. Mohr’s circle, a graphical representation of the

transformation equations, is a popular method of stress

transformation for two reasons.

2. First, it allows us to visualize how the normal and shear

stress components vary with the angle of transformation.

3. Second, since all relevant data can be obtained from Mohr’s

circle by trigonometry, it is not necessary to refer to the

transformation equations.
How to draw the Mohr’s Circle
Construction of Mohr’s circle
1. Draw a set of axes, with the abscissa representing the
normal stress s and the ordinate representing the shear
stress t.

2. Plot the point labeled x with coordinates (sx,-txy) and

the point labeled y with coordinates (sx,txy).

3. The coordinates of these points are the stresses acting on

the x- and y-faces on the element, respectively.
4. Join the points x and y with a straight line, and draw
a circle with this line as its diameter. Mohr’s circle is
now complete
Sign Convention
(This is opposite to
that for beams)
Stresses on any inclined plane
Sample Problem 7
The state of plane stress at a point with respect to the xy-axes is shown in
Fig. (a). Using Mohr’s circle, determine (1) the principal stresses and
principal planes; (2) the maximum in-plane shear stress; and (3) the
equivalent state of stress with respect to the x /y/-axes. Show all results on
sketches of properly oriented elements.
Mohr’s Circle Solution
Principal Stresses
Maximum In-plane shear stress
Stresses on
the inclined
plane
HOME WORK
The T-beam is subjected to the distributed loading that is
applied along its centerline. Determine the principal stress at
point A and show the results on an element located at this point.
Absolute Maximum Shear Stress
1. Up to this point, our discussion was limited to in-plane
transformation of stress (transformation in the xy-plane).
2. The largest shear stress encountered in this
transformation is called the maximum in-plane shear
stress and is denoted by tmax.

3. However, tmax is not necessarily the largest shear stress at a

point.
4. To find the largest shear stress, called the absolute
maximum shear stress, we must also consider
transformations in the other two coordinate planes.
Plane State of Stress
1. Consider the state of plane stress where s1 and s2 are the
principal stresses and the xy-axes coincide with the principal
directions.
2. Mohr’s circle for transformation in the xy-plane is drawn (next
slide)
3. The radius of this circle is the maximum in-plane shear stress
tmax =|s1 - s2|
4. Mohr’s circles representing stress transformation in the zx- and
yz-planes are shown in next slide
The absolute maximum shear stress tabs is the radius of the largest
circle
General State of Stress
Sample Problem 9
The radius of the 15-in.-long bar is 3/8 in. Determine the
maximum normal stress in the bar at (1) point A; and (2) point B.
Solution
Preliminary Calculations
T = 540 lb in., the bending moment M =15P = 15x30= 450 lb in. (acting
about the x-axis), and the transverse shear force
V = P = 30 lb.
The cross-sectional properties of the bar are
 The shear stress due to transverse shear force V is zero at A.
Part 1
Part 2

The shear stress due to torque is tT = 6.520 ksi, as before.

The point lies on the neutral axis, the bending stress is zero.
Additional shear stress caused by the transverse shear force V is
tV = VQ/Ib, where b = 2r = 3/4 in. and Q is the first moment of half
the cross-sectional area about the neutral axis.
Strain Transformation
Transformation of normal strain
Transformation of Shear strain

Rotation of the angle at

90o to OA (y axis is )
Compare the expressions for stress and strain
Centre
Sample Problem 12
The state of plane strain at a point in a body is given by
ex= 800 x 10-6, ey =200 x 10-6, and gxy = -600 x 10-6. Using
Mohr’s circle, find (1) the principal strains and their
directions (show the directions on a sketch); and (2) the
strain components referred to the x/y/axes shown in Fig.
(a).
Relationship Between Shear Modulus and Modulus of
Elasticity
Putting q = 45o, we get
(principal planes)
ex=ey = 0
Class Quiz