Mechanical Force acts upon an object Change in thermal energy = mass X specific heat capacity X temperature change ∆E= m X c X ∆θ

pathways
Energy
Electrical Electric current flow HIGHER: efficiency can be
Specific Energy needed Depends on: mass of substance,
Heat Temperature difference between objects Heat to raise 1kg of what the substance is and increased using machines.
Capacity substance by 1°C energy put into the system.
Radiation Electromagnetic waves or sound Efficiency = Useful power output
Total power input
Kinetic Energy stored by a ½ X mass X (speed)2
energy moving object ½ mv2 Efficiency = Useful output energy transfer
Total input energy transfer
Elastic Energy stored in a ½ X spring constant X (extension)2
Potential stretched spring, ½ ke2 Energy Efficiency
How much energy is
energy elastic band (Assuming the limit of proportionality has not been exceeded) usefully transferred
stores

Energy Conservation and Dissipation

Gravitational
Potential
Energy gained by
an object raised
Mass X gravitational field strength X height and To scatter in When energy is ‘wasted’,
mgh
energy above the ground changes Dissipate
all directions
or to use
it dissipates into the
surroundings as internal
wastefully (thermal) energy.
An object or group of objects that
System EG: Kettle boiling water.
interact together AQA
Kinetic, chemical, internal (thermal),
Energy is gained or lost ENERGY – Ways to
Energy
Insulation,
Energy stores gravitational potential, elastic potential, reduce streamline design,
from the object or device. part 1 transferred
magnetic, electrostatic, nuclear ‘wasted’ lubrication of
usefully
energy moving parts.
Ways to Light, sound, electricity, thermal, kinetic EG: electrical energy
transfer are ways to transfer from one store to transfers chemical energy No change in
energy another store of energy. Closed The amount Energy cannot be
into thermal energy to heat total energy in Principle of
system of energy created or destroyed,
water up. system conservatio
Unit Joules (J) always stays only changed from
n of energy
Open Energy can the same. one store to another.
Doing work By applying a system dissipate
transfers energy force to move an Work done = Force X distance moved
Work
from one store to object the energy W = Fs Units
another store is changed.
Energy (KE, EPE, GPE,
Joules (J)
Power = energy transfer ÷ time thermal)
1 Joule of energy
The rate of P=E÷t
Power per second = 1 Velocity Metres per second (m/s)
energy transfer Power = work done ÷ time,
watt of power
P=W÷t HIGHER: When an Spring constant Newton per metre (N/m)
object is moved,
Extension Metres (m)
Units Useful Energy transferred and energy is transferred by
energy used doing work. Mass Kilogram (Kg)
Joules per Kilogram degree
Specific Heat Capacity
Celsius (J/Kg°C) Wasted Dissipated energy, Gravitational field strength Newton per kilogram (N/Kg)
energy stored less usefully
Temperature change Degrees Celsius ( °C) Work done = Force X Height Metres (m)
Work done Joules (J) distance moved
Standard
Prefix Multiple
Force Newton (N) form

Distance moved Metre (m) Kilo 1000 103 Frictional forces cause
Reducing friction - using wheels, applying
Mega 1000 000 106 energy to be transferred as
Power Watts (W) lubrication. Reducing air resistance –
thermal energy. This is
travelling slowly, streamlining.
Time Seconds (s) Giga 100 000 000 109 wasted.
better hope – brighter future
 Petrol, diesel, kerosene Used in cars,
Power station – NB: You need to understand the principle behind generating electricity.
Transport An energy resource is burnt to make steam to drive a turbine which drives the
produced from oil trains and planes.
generator.
Using renewable Heating Gas and electricity Used in buildings.
energy will need Fuel burnt Turbine Generator
Power Generates Water boils Steam turns
to increase to Most generated by Used to power releasing turns induces
Electricity station electricity into steam turbine
fossil fuels most devices. thermal energy generator voltage
meet demand.

Energy demand is Transports

Renewable energy Fossil fuel National Step-up Step-down House,
electricity across Power station Pylons
makes up about 20% of reserves are increasing as Grid transformer transformer factory
UK
energy consumption. running out. population increases.

These will run out. It is a e.g. Fossil fuels (coal,

Non-renewable
energy resource
finite reserve. It cannot be
replenished.
oil and gas) and nuclear
fuels.
Using fuels Global AQA National
Energy ENERGY – Grid
These will never run out. It e.g. Solar, Tides, Waves, Energy
Renewable
energy resource
is an infinite reserve. It can Wind, Geothermal, Resources part 2
be replenished. Biomass, Hydroelectric resources

Energy
How it works Uses Positive Negative
resource

Provides most of the UK energy. Non-renewable. Burning coal and oil releases sulfur dioxide. When
Fossil Fuels Burnt to release thermal energy used
Generating electricity, Large reserves. Cheap to extract. mixed with rain makes acid rain. Acid rain damages building and kills
(coal, oil and to turn water into steam to turn
heating and transport Used in transport, heating and plants. Burning fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide which contributes to
gas) turbines
making electricity. Easy to transport. global warming. Serious environmental damage if oil spilt.

No greenhouse gases produced. Non-renewable. Dangers of radioactive materials being released into air
Nuclear Nuclear fission process Generating electricity Lots of energy produced from small or water. Nuclear sites need high levels of security. Start up costs and
amounts of fuel. decommission costs very expensive. Toxic waste needs careful storing.

Renewable. As plants grow, they Large areas of land needed to grow fuel crops. Habitats destroyed and
Plant matter burnt to release thermal Transport and
Biofuel remove carbon dioxide. They are food not grown. Emits carbon dioxide when burnt thus adding to
energy generating electricity
‘carbon neutral’. greenhouse gases and global warming.

Every day tides rise and fall, so Renewable. Predictable due to

Expensive to set up. A dam like structure is built across an estuary,
Tides generation of electricity can be Generating electricity consistency of tides. No
altering habitats and causing problems for ships and boats.
predicted greenhouse gases produced.

Can be unreliable depends on wave output as large waves can stop the
Waves Up and down motion turns turbines Generating electricity Renewable. No waste products.
pistons working.

Hydroelectric Falling water spins a turbine Generating electricity Renewable. No waste products. Habitats destroyed when dam is built.

Movement causes turbine to spin Unreliable – wind varies. Visual and noise pollution. Dangerous to
Wind Generating electricity Renewable. No waste products.
which turns a generator migrating birds.

Directly heats objects in solar panels

Generating electricity Making and installing solar panels expensive. Unreliable due to light
Solar or sunlight captured in photovoltaic Renewable. No waste products.
and some heating intensity.
cells

Hot rocks under the ground heats

Generating electricity Renewable. Clean. No greenhouse Limited to a small number of countries. Geothermal power stations can
Geothermal water to produce steam to turn
and heating gases produced. cause earthquake tremors.
turbine
better hope – brighter future
 Variable
are free to move in
current. Electrons

Cell Battery Switch Lamp Ammeter Volt meter Diode LED LDR Fuse Resistor Thermistor
Electrons carry

resistor
metal.

Two or Breaks Lights Current Emits light Melts Affects the Allows
Store of Measures Resistance Resistance
more circuit, when Measures flows when when size of current
chemical potential low in low at high
cells in turning current current one current current is current to be
energy difference bright light temp
series current off flows way flows too high flowing varied

Circuit symbols Series Parallel

Total p.d. from Total resistance is

Series and parallel

Flow of electrical Ampere Current is the
Current Series battery is shared the sum of each
charge (A) same in all A circuit A circuit
circuit between all the component’s with one with two or
components.
components. resistance.

Current resistance
Potential loop more loops

Charge

circuits
How much electrical

and
difference Volts (V)

Current, potential
work is done by a cell Total current Total resistance is
(p.d.)

difference and
is the sum of p.d. across all less than the If cells are joined in

Total
Parallel series, add up

p.d
Amount of electricity Coulombs each components is resistance value of
Charge circuit individual cell values
travelling in a circuit (C) component’s the same. the smallest
Charge = Current X time Q=IXt current. individual resistor.
Controllin
g current

Power (W) = potential difference X current R=VXI

Change the p.d. of the cells Energy
Changing current

AQA transfers
Work is done when Power = (current)2 X resistance P = I2 X R
charge flowing.
Electricity Energy transferred = Power X time E=PXt
AmmeterAdd more
Set upcomponents
in series with components Step-down
R=V÷I Step-up transformers
transformers
Voltmeter Set up parallel to components Resistance = Domestic uses
Potential difference Increase voltage, Decrease voltage,

National
and safety Distributes electricity decrease current increase current

Grid
Resistance A measurement of how much ÷ Current generated in power
(Ω) current flow is reduced stations around UK Increases efficiency, Makes safer for
Thermistor LDR Alternating current Direct current reduces heat loss. houses.
The higher the resistance, the more difficult
it is for current to flow. Resistance varies with Resistance varies
temperature with light intensity
p.d. switches
direction many times
p.d. remains in
one direction,
Static electricity PHYSICS only
Increasing resistance, reduces current. a second, current current flows the
Resistance decreases as Resistance decreases switches direction same direction
Increasing voltage, increases current. temperature increases. as light increases. When two insulating material

electricity
Electrical
are rubbed together,

Static
Generator. Cell or battery. charge is
At a constant temperature, ‘Earthing’ a Mains supply electrons move from one
Ohmic stationary
current is directly safety device; material to the other.
conduct Frequency Like charges Repel
Current – Potential

proportional to the p.d. Earth wire joins

difference graphs

or 50Hz, 230V Walking on carpet causes friction. Electrons

across the resistor. the metal case. Unlike charges Attract

Shocks
move to the person and charge builds up.
When the person touches a metal object, the
As current increases, the Carries p.d from p.d between live electrons conduct away, making a spark.
Live - Brown
Filament resistance increases. The mains supply. and earth = 230V
lamp temperature increases as
3 pin plug

Charged objects create electric fields

Electric fields
current flows. Neutral - Blue Completes the circuit. p.d. = OV
around them. Strongest closest to the
Earth – Green object. The field direction is the direction
Current flows when p.d. flows Only carries current if of force on a positive charge. Add more
and Yellow p.d. = 0V
Diode forward. Very high resistance there is a fault. charge increases field strength.
stripes
in reverse.
better hope – brighter future
 State Particle arrangement Properties Units

Packed in a regular Density Kilograms per metre cubed (kg/m3)

Solid structure. Strong forces hold Difficult to change shape. Mass Kilograms (kg)
in place so cannot move.
Volume Metres cubed (m3)
Pressure of a fixed volume of gas Close together, forces keep Can change shape but
Liquid Energy needed Joules (J)
increases as temperature increases contact but can move about. difficult to compress.
(temperature increases, speed Specific latent heat Joule per kilogram (J/kg)
increases, collisions occur more Separated by large
frequently and with more force so distances. Weak forces so Can expand to fill a space, Change in thermal energy Joules (J)
Gas
constantly randomly easy to compress.
pressure increases). moving. Joule per kilogram degrees Celsius
Specific heat capacity
(J/kg°C)
Temperature of gas is linked to the
average kinetic energy of the Temperature change Degrees Celsius ( °C)
particles. Kinetic theory of Pressure Pascals (Pa)

Particle model
If kinetic energy increases so does
gases

the temperature of gas. Reducing the volume of PV = constant.

Pressure a fixed mass of gas
No kinetic energy is lost when gas PHYSICS ONLY: when you do work the increases the pressure.
temperature increases e.g. pump air P1V1 = P2V2
particles collide with each other or
quickly into a ball, the air gets hot because
the container. AQA as the piston in the pump moves the
particles bounce off increasing kinetic Halving the volume
Gas particles are in a constant state PARTICLE MODEL energy, which causes a temperature rise. doubles the pressure.
of random motion.
OF MATTER Depends on: Change in thermal energy = mass
Energy needed X specific heat capacity X
P=m÷V Specific • Mass of substance
to raise 1kg of
Heat • What the substance is temperature change.
substance by
Capacity • Energy put into the
Density = mass ÷ volume. 1°C
system. ∆E= m X c X ∆θ

Density
Mass of a substance in Internal energy and
a given volume Energy stored
energy transfers inside a
Internal energy is the total kinetic and potential
energy of all the particles (atoms and
system by
Change of state

Internal energy
Liquid turns to a solid. molecules) in a system.
Freezing particles
Internal energy decreases.
Specific Latent Energy needed to change 1kg of a
Solid turns to a liquid. Heat substance’s state Heating Heating causes a change in state. As particles
Melting
Internal energy increases. changes the separate, potential energy stored increases.
Specific Latent Energy needed to change 1kg of solid into energy stored Heating increases the temperature of a system.
Boiling / Liquid turns to a gas. Internal Heat of Fusion 1 kg of liquid at the same temperature within a Particles move faster so kinetic energy of
Evaporating energy increases. system particles increases.
Specific Latent
Energy needed to change 1kg of liquid into
Gas turns to a liquid. Internal Heat of
Condensation 1 kg of gas at the same temperature
energy decreases. Vaporisation

Solid turns directly into a gas. Energy needed = mass X specific latent heat.
Sublimation
Internal energy increases.
∆E= m X L
Conservation When substances change
of mass state, mass is conserved.
Physical No new substance is made,
change process can be reversed.
better hope – brighter future
 Radius of an atom Electrons gained Electrons lost Ionising
Decay Range in air Penetration power
1 X 10-10m power
Negative ion Positive ion
Alpha Few cm Very strong Stopped by paper
Atom Same number of protons and electrons
Stopped by
Ion Unequal number of electrons to protons Beta Few m Medium
Aluminium
Mass number Number of protons and neutrons Gamma Great distances Weak Stopped by thick lead
Atomic number Number of protons Radioactive Unstable atoms randomly emit Changes in mass
decay radiation to become stable Decay Emitted from nucleus number and atomic
Particle Charge Size Found number
Detecting Use Geiger Muller tube
23 8
Neutron None 1 Alpha (α) Helium nuclei () -4 -2 92 𝑈 → 234 4
90 𝑇h + 2 𝐻𝑒
Unit Becquerel

Atom structure
In the nucleus
Proton + 1 Beta (β) Electron () 0 +1 14
𝐶→
14 0
𝑁 + −1𝑒
Ionisation All radiation ionises 6 7

Electron - Tiny Orbits the nucleus Gamma (γ) Electromagnetic wave 0 0 99

𝑇𝑐 → 99
43 43 𝑇𝑐 +𝛾

Atoms and Neutron Neutron -1 0

Isotope Atoms and Nuclear Contamination Unwanted presence of radioactive atoms
Isotopes Radiation Irradiation Person is in exposed to radioactive source
Different forms of an element with the same
number of protons but different number of neutrons
Half The time taken to lose half
AQA PHYSICS ONLY: Hazards life of its initial radioactivity
Discovery of the nucleus
ATOMIC and uses of Radioactive Sievert Unit measuring dose of radiation
Democritus Suggested idea of atoms as small spheres that cannot
be cut.
STRUCTURE emissions and of Constant low level environmental radiation,
background radiation Background e.g. from nuclear testing, nuclear power,
JJ Discovered electrons– emitted from surface of hot waste
Nuclear fission and fusion

Thomson metal. Showed electrons are negatively charged and

(1897) that they are much less massive than atoms. Different isotopes have
Uses Short half-lives used in high doses, long half lives used in low doses.
different half lives
Thomson Proposed ‘plum pudding’ model – atoms are a ball of
(1904) positive charge with negative electrons embedded in it. Isotope with short half life injected, allowed to circulate and collect
Tracers Used within body in damaged areas. PET scanner used to detect emitting radiation.
Geiger and Directed beam of alpha particles (He2+)at a thin sheet Must be beta or gamma as alpha does not penetrate the body.
Marsden of gold foil. Found some travelled through, some were
(1909) deflected, some bounced back. Radiation Used to treat illnesses Cancer cells killed by gamma rays. High dose used to kill cells.
therapy e.g. cancer Damage to healthy cells prevented by focussed gamma ray gun.
Used above evidence to suggest alpha particles
deflected due to electrostatic interaction between the Fuel rods Made of U-238, ‘enriched’ with U-235 (3%). Long and thin to allow neutrons to escape, hitting nuclei.
Rutherford very small charged nucleus, nucleus was massive.
(1911) Proposed mass and positive charge contained in Control rods Made of Boron. Controls the rate of reaction. Boron absorbs excess neutrons.
nucleus while electrons found outside the nucleus
which cancel the positive charge exactly. Concrete Neutrons hazardous to humans – thick concreate shield protects workers.

Suggested modern model of atom – electrons in Process repeats, chain

reaction formed
Nuclear energy

circular orbits around nucleus, electrons can change

PHYSICS ONLY:

Nuclear fission

Bohr orbits by emitting or absorbing electromagnetic Neutron hits U-235 nucleus, nucleus
(1913) radiation. His research led to the idea of some particles One large unstable
absorbs neutron, splits emitting two or
within the nucleus having positive charge; these were nucleus splits to make
three neutrons and two smaller nuclei.
named protons. two smaller nuclei Used in nuclear power
Process also releases energy.
stations
Chadwick Discovered neutrons in nucleus – enabling other
(1932) scientists to account for mass of atom.

better hope – brighter future

Two small nuclei join Difficult to do on Earth – huge
ar
n