MOD 6.

AIRPORT ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

FROM : KIPYEGON CHAMNDANY Z

overview
 overview
• OVERVIEW
Challenges that security threats impose on
airports and airlines
Technological measures available to reduce
risks to civil aviation
Forces that drive demand for air transportation
How airports cope with times of reduced
revenues and increased cost
 Cont..
Solutions that airport can implement to cope
with capacity problems
Impacts that new aircrafts had on airports over
few decades
What future aircrafts types will have in the
short and long term
The concept of sustainable development and
what measures airports should implement to
meet its objectives
 Security threats
• Expectations
 Impacts of security threats on the aviation
industry
 The evolution of threats and acts of unlawful
interference
 How airports are coping with the current
security challenge
 Technological tools available to further increase
security while protecting facilitation
 Threats at airports
• Airport security refers to the techniques and
methods used in an attempt to protect
passengers, staff, aircraft, and airport property
from accidental/malicious harm, crime, and
other threats
• Aviation security is a combination of human
and material resources to safeguard civil
aviation against unlawful interference.
 Civil Aviation Security Threats and
Vulnerabilities
Threats worldwide are continuing, evolving and
challenging to predict.

• All facets of civil aviation are at risk – passenger

aircraft, air cargo, airports, and related facilities and
operations.

• New and emerging threats – suicide bombers, cyber

terrorism, insider threats, MANPADs
 CONT…
• Transnational Crime( Drug trafficking, Human
trafficking)
• Aircraft as weapon of mass destruction
• NB: Despite improvements, Aviation Security
Audits show many States with serious
deficiencies:
➢ compliance with Standards and Recommended
Practices
➢ adequacy of oversight systems
 THREAT SCENARIOS
• Airborne threat (conventional Hijack Vs aircraft
used as weapons)
• Person IED
• Vehicle-borne IED,
• Cargo IED
• Chemical, biological
• radiological attacks
 CONT…
• Sabotage

• Cyber attacks

• Other weapons( knives, firearms, blunt

instruments)
• MANPADS (Man portable air defense systems)
Man-portable air-defense systems are shoulder-
launched surface-to-air missiles. They are
typically guided weapons and are a threat to
 Annex 17: Security (AVSEC)
Lead and support global efforts to establish
sustainable civil aviation security regimes and
oversight systems to:
• – prevent unlawful interference with civil
aviation;
• – respond effectively to attacks and attempted
attacks; and
• – assure the safe and efficient movement of
people and goods
 SCENARIO
• -Since 1930,civil aviation recorded up to 1200
acts of interference that cost 6600 lives,
excluding 11 sept,2001 events, which caused
several thousand casualties.
 Acts of unlawful interference
Definition: These are acts or attempted acts of
persons such as to jeopardize the safety of civil
aviation, including but not limited to:
• unlawful seizure of aircraft,(hijacking)

• destruction of an aircraft in service,

• hostage-taking on board aircraft or on

aerodromes,
 Cont..
• • forcible intrusion on board an aircraft, at an
airport or on the premises of an aeronautical
facility.

• • introduction on board an aircraft or at an

airport of a weapon or hazardous device or
material intended for criminal purposes.
 Cont…
• use of an aircraft in service for the purpose of
causing death, serious bodily injury, or serious
damage to property or the environment,
• communication of false information such as to
jeopardize the safety of an aircraft in flight or
on the ground, of passengers, crew, ground
personnel or the general public, at an airport
or on the premises of a civil aviation facility.
 Cont…
• Security threats and actual acts of unlawful
interference against civil aviation have
cascading(negative) effects throughout air
transportation industry:
 Impacts of security threats and unlawful
acts
 Loss of airlines revenues and business
-No survival on the industry
 Loss of airport business and revenues-no
passengers and reduced airline traffic
 Increased airport security costs-affects the
airline costs passed on to the passengers
which causes lack of business.
 Cont..

 Increased requirement for security

equipment-requiring more space and adding
processing time at the expense of facilitation.
 Reduced capacity due to slower processing
rate and loss of operational space to security
equipment.
 Increased in cost or unavailability of insurance
coverage for airlines and airports.
 Evolution of security threats
• The aviation sector is facing challenging times due to
the enduring and evolving threat from international
terrorism.
• Terrorists remain committed to targeting the
industry and the transfer of knowledge between
groups may increase the number of hostile actors
and frequency of incidents we face in the future.
• NB: Terrorists use their knowledge of the systems
and procedures that are designed to protect civil
aviation against acts of unlawful interference.
 Angles of security threats in airports and
airlines
 Passengers
 Employees
 Visitors
These individuals may use:
 Hand guns,
 Knives
 Explosives
 Biological and chemical substances
 Hacking security and information systems
 How they are concealed/hidden
 On themselves
 In carry on luggage
 Checked luggage
 Delivery vehicles(truck bombs)
 In private vehicles(car bombs)
 Airport security threats: combating the
enemy within
• An airport is an enormous, complex operation
area, and while on the surface one is more
physically secure and reassuring for travelers –
and acts as a bulwark/defense/safeguard
against a possible terror attack – there is also a
hidden threat from inside the airport
environment. This threat has no boundaries
and exists across all airports and countries
 Cont..
• the “insider” has the ability to overcome many of these
overt/open security measures if they want to target and
threaten passengers or the wider population.
 insiders can include
 individual criminals,
 organized crime gangs,
• disgruntled employees or even
unwitting/unaware/uninformed members of staff who,
through failure to follow proper security processes,
leave airports vulnerable to external threats.
 Cont..
• NB: The most common examples of insider
threat lie with individual members (or groups)
of staff who commit low-level crime in the
airport.
• This can range from smuggling drugs to theft
from bags as they are processed through the
handling system.
• Organized crime networks also see airports as
a legitimate route to traffic drugs from South
America to the rest of the world.
 Dealing with threats

• While it is important to highlight past

examples of insider activity within the aviation
sector, it is also essential that suspicious
behaviors and indicators are recognized.
• Research has been carried out to identify
behavioral indicators, and use this as a
predictive technique to detect current and
future insider threats.
 Cont..
• Suspicious acts by employees may include:
a) nervous or secretive behavior
b) turning up for work in uniform on days off
c) showing interest in security matters outside
their normal scope
d) undertaking hostile reconnaissance for future
exploitation of airport weaknesses.
 CONT..
 Insider threat has now been recognized as a
clear and present danger within the international
aviation sector and organizations such as the
International Air Transport Association (IATA) has
produced guidelines on how to manage this
threat.
 The threat from insider activity within the
aviation sector has also been recognized by
governments and law enforcement agencies.
 CONT..
• Everyone has an opportunity to do more to
combat the aviation insider threat, through a
“community approach” at airports.
• This involves everyone from operators,
airlines and third party contractors, to law
enforcement working in collaboration and
sharing key information (such as Project
Servator, which seeks to “detect, deter and
disrupt” criminal activity, including terrorism)
 CONT..
• Pre-employment screening, vetting and
ongoing security management of employees
can all be improved.
• Training programmes for management and
supervisors are essential for airports, and will
provide them with skills to identify, manage
and resolve these threats
 Cont..
• . The value of managing the insider risk should
not be underestimated.
• By acknowledging and identifying the threat
and developing measures to combat it, we can
make our airports safer places for all
passengers and the staff who service them.
 Cont..
• Security threats and actual acts of unlawful
interference against civil aviation have a
cascading effect throughout the air
transportation industry
• l
 Insider Threats examples
• Rajib Karim sought to stage a terrorist attack
on behalf of AQAP,( Al-Qa`ida in the Arabian
Peninsula ) seeking to become a flight
attendant for British Airways to stage a suicide
attack. He also attempted to recruit fellow
friends (including a baggage handler at
Heathrow Airport and an employee of airport
security) to stage an attack.
 Cont..
• Coupled with the aforementioned 2007 JFK
airport plot, which involved at least one
airport employee, and a reported 2009 plot by
Indonesian terrorist Noordin Top to target
commercial aviation at Jakarta’s main airport,
which included assistance from a former
mechanic for Garuda Indonesia, this
illustrates the primacy of the so-called “insider
threat” to aviation.
 Cont..
• Although TSA and U.S. airports currently conduct
criminal and terrorist database checks on potential
airport, airline, and vendor employees who are to
be granted access to secure areas, there are
significant vulnerabilities in this approach, which
has proven notably unsuccessful at stopping
members of street gangs from gaining employment
and carrying out criminal activities such as
narcotrafficking, baggage theft, and prostitution at
airports nationwide.
 Cont..
• . In 2010, an individual named Takuma Owuo-
Hagood obtained employment as a baggage
handler for Delta Airlines, then promptly
traveled to Afghanistan where he made
contact with the Taliban, reportedly providing
advice on how to effectively engage U.S.
troops
 Cont..
• The magnitude of this vulnerability is
compounded because most airport employees
working in secure areas do not undergo
security screening prior to entering their
workspace due to practical constraints.
Additional measures, such as random
screening and security probes, are unable to
effectively mitigate this threat. .
 Cont..
• The insider threat becomes markedly worse at
non-Western airports in regions such as West
Africa or South Asia, where local authorities’
ability to effectively screen prospective airport
employees is frequently negligible due to
incomplete or poorly structured terrorist and
criminal intelligence databases.
 Cont..
• The insider threat becomes markedly worse at
non-Western airports in regions such as West
Africa or South Asia, where local authorities’
ability to effectively screen prospective airport
employees is frequently negligible due to
incomplete or poorly structured terrorist and
criminal intelligence databases.
 Threats from Ranged Weapons
• MANPADS, or man-portable air defense
systems, have been described as a growing
threat to commercial aviation following the
outbreak of Libya’s civil war in early 2011 and
subsequent news reports claiming that
al-Qae`ida has obtained surface-to-air
missiles.
 Cont..
• Some reports suggest that missiles stolen from
Libyan arsenals have spread as far as Niger, the Gaza
Strip, and the Sinai Peninsula.
• Al-Shaabab has been known to possess advanced
MANPADS, allegedly provided by Eritrea.
• There are also reports that the Taliban acquired
MANPADS from Iran, making it conceivable that
elements of the group sympathetic to al-Qae`ida’s
aims could provide al-Qae`ida with MANPADS for a
future attack.
 Cont.

NB:
Although MANPADS are unable to target aircraft
at cruising altitudes, commercial aircraft
would become vulnerable for several miles
while ascending and descending, particularly
due to their lack of countermeasure systems.
 Cont..
• In addition to the MANPAD threat, a significant
variety of ranged weapons could be used to
target commercial aircraft, particularly when
taxiing prior to takeoff or after landing.
• Rocket-propelled grenades (RPGs), for example,
are inaccurate at extended ranges; however,
they have been used to shoot down rotary
wing aircraft in combat zones, and have been
used in at least one plot against El Al aircraft.
 Cont..
• The Irish Republican Army (IRA) used
homemade mortars to attack Heathrow
Airport in the 1990s, while heavy anti-material
sniper rifles such as the Barrett M82 fire .50
caliber rounds to a range of more than one
mile and have been previously used by non-
state actors, such as the IRA and the Los Zetas
drug cartel.
 Threats Against Airline Facilities and
Airports
• One aspect of aviation security that is not frequently
addressed is the potential for terrorists to strike other
aspects of aviation infrastructure beyond aircraft.

• Commercial airlines are highly reliant upon information

technology systems to handle critical functions such as
reservations and crew check-in, a fact not lost upon
Rajib Karim when he suggested in correspondence with
Anwar al-`Awlaqi that he could erase data from British
Airways’ servers, thus disabling the airline’s website.
 Cont..
• The operational control centers operated by air carriers
are another significant point of vulnerability, which
conduct the airlines’ flight control, meteorology, and
emergency management functions.

• Despite their criticality to flight operations, these control

centers are rarely heavily guarded, meaning that a team
of attackers equipped with inside knowledge could
temporarily shut down the global operations of a major
air carrier, particularly if backup facilities were to be
targeted as well.
 Cont..
• Another threat to commercial aviation is the
increasing number of plots and attacks
targeting airports themselves rather than
aircraft.
• There have been two significant attacks staged
at international airports thus far in 2011 in
Frankfurt and Moscow.
 Cont..
• Attacks against airports have been planned or
executed using a variety of tactics, such as
• firearms,
• car bombs
 suicide bombers,
• hijacked aircraft.
 Cont..
The targets have included airport facilities such
as
• fuel lines
• arrival halls
• curbside drop-off points.
• NB: Terrorists could also breach perimeter
fencing and assault aircraft on:
• runways, taxiing areas, and at gates.
 Evolution of threats
• The first acts of unlawful interference against
civil aviation were relatively concentrated:
a) in-flight hijacks
b) bomb threats
• NB:Today's terrorist threat compared to that
of thirty years ago, is more varied, more
complex, diffuse, more extreme, and more
trans-national
 How Airport Operators Cope with the
Current Threat Challenge
 tightening of security control procedures

 Designing and implementation of better screening

equipment

 providing additional trained staff

 coordinated the implementation of facilitation

 Cont..
• airlines have equipped their aircraft with
tamperproof flight deck doors.

• proper check on travel documentation and

inspections

• some countries have responded by providing

armed guards (also called air marshals) on board
aircraft, either as a general rule, or on
specific high-risk flights.
 Cont..
• NB:
Terrorists use their knowledge of systems
and procedures that are designed to
protect civil aviation against acts of
unlawful
interference.
 AIR/SKY MARSHALLS
• A sky marshal is a covert law enforcement or
counter-terrorist agent on board a commercial
aircraft to counter aircraft hijackings.
Are there air marshals on every flight?
• Air Marshalls are not on every flight, only
specific high-risk flights.
 What does an air marshal do?
• The Air Marshal Service is meant to promote
confidence in civil aviation by effectively
deploying federal air marshals (FAMs) to
detect, deter, and defeat hostile acts targeting
the United States.
 Do air marshals carry guns?
• An air marshal is a federal agent disguised to
look like regular passenger.
• Each air marshal is authorized to carry
a gun and make arrests.
• There are not enough air marshals to cover
every flight, so their assignments are kept
secret.
how do air marshals get through security

• Federal air marshals are hired mostly by the

Transportation Security Administration (TSA)
to protect passengers and airline crews on
domestic as well as international flights. ...
• High Risk Flights
Flights to and from some regions, or by certain
carriers, require special security measures
beyond those provided by airports
 Challenge of the Future
• the objective of preventative measures
was to prevent the presence on board aircraft
and in other vulnerable points of
 weapons,
 explosives,
 other dangerous goods or substances.
 METHOD OF IDENTIFYING VULNERABLE
COMPONENTS
• Many studies only consider life safety when
evaluating the seismic vulnerability of an
airport. To keep airports operational, a
performance based method of identifying
vulnerable airport systems is necessary.
• In order to develop a performance based
method of identifying seismically vulnerable
systems, classification levels must be defined.
Airport Facility Classification Levels
• It is important to determine the role of each
component in the operation of the airport.
• The three levels of classification may consist
of systems, structural and non-structural, that,
if lost, would render the airport
inoperable/inoperative for some period of
time.
 Levels of classification
Level A:
• This level consists of systems that are absolutely
necessary to safely land and takeoff aircraft during
or following a seismic event(earthquakes and other
vibrations).
This level would include facilities such as the control
tower, voltage regulators powering runway lights,
back-up power generators, runways, and any other
system housing or
consisting of vital communications.
 Level B:
• This level consists of systems that are not
necessary to land and takeoff aircraft during
or following a seismic event(earthquakes and
other vibrations), but are still vital to everyday
airport operations.
• This level includes systems such as the
baggage handling system, security systems,
fuel supplies, and piping systems.
 Level C:
• This level is similar to level B in the sense that
the systems are not necessary to land and
takeoff aircraft. It differs in the sense that
collapse or loss of non-structural systems in this
level may not effect the operation of the
airport. This level includes systems such as:
• storage facilities for aircraft,
• airport vehicles and
• non-vital supplies.
 CONT..
• NB: In general, systems in Level A would be
expected to perform better than systems in
Level B or Level C.
• It is important to determine whether it is
more economical to retrofit /substitute or to
rebuild a system after it has been destroyed by
an earthquake. The amount of time it takes to
rebuild or to retrofit must also be considered.
 Fragility levels
Functionality Damage Assessment Fragility
Full Operation System performs as I
intended following an
earthquake. No damage
present.
Minor Interference Limited damage to systems II
can be detected. The
majority of systems remain
operational.
Limited Interference Majority of systems sustain III
moderate damage. Some
systems remain
operational.
Significant Interference All systems sustain major IV
damage. Majority of
systems fail.
Full Shutdown All systems sustain critical V
damage. All systems fail.
 Fragility(weakness/feebleness) levels
• 1.Full operation clearly is a condition where a
component is performing as it is required
following and earthquake, that is, no damage
is present.
• 2. Minor interference defines the fragility level
at which limited damage to systems can be
detected, but most system’s operations
remain unaffected.
 Cont..
• 3. Limited interference is the case where most
systems have undergone moderate damage,
but a few of them continue to operate.
• 4. Significant interference is the fragility level
at which all systems have sustained major
damage and many of them have failed.
• 5. Full shutdown is the damage level at which
all systems have suffered tremendous damage
and each fails to operate.
 RETROFIT(add,part,structure) OF
VULNERABLE COMPONENTS
• The loss of airport facilities , can devastate airway
modal networks. Retrofit design considerations can
be implemented to reduce the vulnerably of
airports to seismic events.
• A basic retrofit design should be developed to
eliminate the problem with the back-up power
generator’s exhaust and fuel supply. If the retrofit
scheme were implemented, the overall fragility of
the airport could be reduced, drastically decreasing
the threat of airport shut-down.
 Cont..
• To be able to justify the retrofit of airport
systems at the world’s airports facing the
threat of earthquakes, the consequences of
losing an airport must be defined.
• It will not be worth the extra cost of retrofit to
the decision makers if the losses due to the
shutdown of airport operations are not
known.
 Cont..
• Because airports have such an impact on the
overall transportation modal network, their
ability to operate during and after an
earthquake is imperative.
 Conclusion
• Seismic activity threatens airports world-wide.
International airports all have a major impact
not only on their local and national
transportation networks, but all
transportation networks world-wide.
• The impact of losing an international airport
goes beyond the loss of life. Economic losses
must also be considered.
 Cont..
• While making an airport life safe is the first
priority, further steps must be taken to protect
the global airway network.
 Detecting Dangerous People
• Terrorists who plan to commit an act of
unlawful interference against an aircraft need
to be on board that aircraft, with a weapon.
• Therefore, intercepting these individuals
before boarding is at least as important as
detecting the weapons they are carrying.
NB : These leads to the passenger identification.
 CONT..
 Terrorists who plan to commit an unlawful act are likely to
travel under a false identity.

 Detecting dangerous people before they can access an

aircraft starts with the detection of those trying to hide
their true identity.

 Terrorists who plan to commit an unlawful act are likely to

travel several times to familiarize themselves with the
aviation security environment, on the ground and in flight.
 CONT..
• In doing that, they will wait in line, be visible,
be questioned, and be subject to identification
and arrest.
 Methods for Detecting Passengers Travelling under a
False Identity

• All passengers should be required to show a verifiable proof of their

identity.

• Those passengers who cannot or will not provide such proof should
be subjected to full electronic screening.

• Those who rank high, as potential security threats, should be subject

to a full physical search prior to accessing an airport restricted area.
 How to spot a terrorist, according to US
airport security

• Excessive yawning, strong body odour and

arrogance are among the suspicious signs that
US airport staff are trained to associate with
potential terrorists.
• Other warning signs , include protruding or
throbbing neck arteries, whistling, excessive
laughter, and "verbally expressing contempt
for the screening process".
 Cont..
• Its Screening of Passengers by Observation
Techniques (SPOT) guidance, used by staff to
root out potential terrorists, lists a total of 17
“stress factors”,
 The 17 stress factors theory
 Arrives later for flight

 Avoids eye contact with security personnel

 Exaggerated yawning as the individual

approached the screening process
 CONT..
 Excessive fidgeting(to make continuous, small
movements that annoy other people:) , clock
watching, head-turning, shuffling feet(walk by
dragging one's feet along or without lifting
them fully from the ground.) , leg shaking.

 Excessive perspiration inconsistent with the

environment
 Cont..
 Face pale from recent shaving of beard

 Facial flushing(Skin flushing or blushing

describes feelings of warmth and rapid
reddening of your neck, upper chest, or face)
while undergoing screening

 Faster eye blink rate when individual

requested to submit to screening procedures
 Cont..
 Increased breathing rate, panting (breathing with
short, quick breaths)

 Obvious “Adam’s Apple” jump when requested to

submit to screening procedures

 Protruding or beating neck arteries

 Repetitive touching of face

 Cont..
 Rubbing or wringing of hands

 Strong body odour

 Sweaty palms

 Trembling

 Whistling as the individual approaches the screening

process
 The 15 fear factors theory
• Bag appears to be heavier than expected or does
not suit the individual’s appearance

• - Bulges in clothing( it sticks out)

• - Cold penetrating stare

• - Constantly looking at other travelers or

associates
 CONT..
• Exaggerated emotions or inappropriate behavior
such as crying, excessive laughter or chatter

• - Exaggerated, repetitive grooming gestures

• - Hesitation/indecision on entering checkpoint

• - Individuals who are seemingly unrelated but

display identical dress or luggage
 CONT..
• Powerful grip of a bag or hand inside the bag
• - Rigid posture, minimal body movements
with arms close to side
• - Scans area, appearing to look for security
personnel
• - Shows unusual interest in security officers
and their work routine
 CONT..
• - Displays arrogance and verbally expresses
contempt for the screening process

• - Wearing improper attire for location

• - Widely open staring eyes

 six deceptions factors
• - Appears to be confused or disoriented
• - Appears to be in disguise( altering one's
appearance to conceal one's identity).
• - Asks security-related questions
 CONT..
• - Does not respond to authoritative
commands
• - Maintains covert ties with others( not openly
acknowledged or displayed)
• - Repeatedly pats(a quick, light touch with the
hand.) upper body with hands.
 Methods used for detection
Deployment of new technology, such as

 Advance Passenger Information(API)

 Machine Readable Travel Documents,

 Biometric Identification Systems

 questions
• 1. Annex 17 aviation security was established to
Lead and support global efforts to establish
sustainable civil aviation security regimes and
oversight systems. Explain three objectives of
Annex 17.
• 2. Explain the examples two resources required
for aviation security to be achieved.
• 3.Define unlawful interference to civil aviation
and name at least four types of unlawful
interference.
 questions
• 4.what are MANPADS and explain how
terrorists uses MANPADS to jeopardize civil
aviation.
• 5.Explain with examples new and emerging
threats to civil aviation.
 Advance Passenger Information
(API)
• States have implemented computerized
databases, accessible by all Government
Control agencies.
• These databases contain lists of wanted
individuals and of false identification
documents.
• They constitute a quick and efficient way of
detecting wanted individuals as they travel,
and forged or stolen identification documents.
 The required information consists of
• Full name (last name, first name, middle name
if applicable)
• Gender
• Date of birth
• Nationality
• Country of residence
 CONT..
• Travel document type (normally passport)
• Travel document number (expiry date and
country of issue for passport)
• [For travelers to the US] Address of the first
night spent in the US (not required for US
nationals, legal permanent residents, or alien
residents of the US entering the US)
 CONT..
• The Advance Passenger Information System
or APIS is an electronic data interchange
system established by U.S. Customs and
Border Protection (CBP), but also demanded
by some other countries.
 CONT..
• The API information can also be used for
checking passengers against warning lists and
can also be beneficial for immigration
purposes. The main purpose of the API system
is to provide advance warning to the Border
Control of any passengers or crew members
that may be of Interest to Security and Border
Control.
 Machine-Readable Passports
• A machine-readable passport (MRP) is
a machine-readable travel document (MRTD)
with the data on the identity page encoded in
optical character recognition format. Many
countries began to issue machine-
readable travel documents in the 1980s. Most
travel passports worldwide are MRPs.
 CONT..
• Machine-readable passports and other
identification documents can be scanned for
comparison purposes with a database.
• This can be done within seconds and does not
unduly slow down the flow of passengers.
Example
 Biometric Identification System
• Biometrics is a method of quickly and
automatically checking the identity of an
individual by comparing one of his or her
physical features against a database.
 types of biometric systems:
 Fingerprint
 Hand geometry
 Iris recognition
 Facial recognition
 Voice recognition
NB: Airports are using this technology as a
means of controlling access to restricted
areas.
 CONT..
Common systems used by airports are:
 Fingerprint
 Hand geometry
 Iris recognition
 How does it work?
• When an employee applies for an Airport
Restricted Area Permit, he or she will provide
the authority issuing the permit with one
of the following physical features.
• Finger prints
• Hand geometry (shape and size)
• Digitised iris photography
 CONT..
• This information is then entered into a
database. Each access point to a restricted
area is equipped with a reader that,
depending on the system used, can read the
person's finger prints, hand geometry, or iris
features.
 CONT..
• All the employee has to do is to place his or
her hand inside a receptacle for verification of
fingerprints or hand geometry, or look at a
camera for verification of his or her iris
features.
 CONT…
• The reader then compares the person's
features against the database. This action
takes two to three seconds, and if there is
concordance, access is allowed.
 Advantages of this technology
 No need to staff gates and other access
points, as the system is self sufficient.

 No risk of access by an unauthorized person

using a stolen magnetic pass or key.

 Easy monitoring of movements at all access

points.
 POINTS TO NOTE
• Biometrics is the technical term for body
measurements and calculations. It refers to
metrics related to human characteristics.
• Biometrics authentication (or realistic
authentication) is used in computer science as
a form of identification and access control.
 Cont…
• Biometric sensors or access control systems
are classified into two types such as
Physiological Biometrics and
Behavioral Biometrics.
• The physiological biometrics mainly include
face recognition, fingerprint, hand geometry,
Iris recognition and DNA.
 Cont..
• Behavioral Biometrics it includes keystrokes,
voice and signature
• Keystroke dynamics uses unique a
biometric template to identify individuals
based on typing pattern, rhythm and speed.
 Extension of the Use of Biometrics to
Passengers
• The principle of biometrics can be extended
to passengers' control.
• The method used for employees' access
permits also applies: those passengers willing
to adopt this identification method need to
submit to the appropriate security authority
the required physical data, along with
verifiable proof of identity.
 Cont..
• This willingness to provide personal data
raises the issue of protection of privacy. The
security authority using biometrics and
personal data as a proof of identity must
restrict the use of such information to
identification purposes in the context of air
travel.
 Cont..
• Once the identity of an applicant is verified
and it is confirmed that he or she does not
represent a risk to civil aviation, he or she
becomes part of a“Registered Traveller
Programme”.(RTD).
• These individuals are then entitled to by-pass
the normal security screening channel, and
use a dedicated channel equipped with one of
the biometric systems.
 Cont….
• Two immediate benefits arise from the use of
biometric technology:
(a) From a security point of view, since these no-
risk passengers are removed from the regular
screening process, screening personnel can
concentrate on a smaller number of
passengers, thereby increasing the probability
of detecting dangerous people and objects.
 Cont..
• (b) From a facilitation point of view, those
passengers who use the biometric channel are
processed much more quickly and with no hassle,
which provides them with a higher level of
service.
• In addition, the processing space and time they
do not occupy at the regular channel reduces
congestion at that point, which is beneficial to
other passengers, to the airlines, and to the
airport operator.
 Screening of Checked Luggage
• N B: Since one hundred percent of checked
luggage will require screening for explosives as
of January 1, 2006, new technology is being
implemented that allows automatic and quick
screening of luggage, for the detection of
explosive vapors.
 CONT..
• Three installation locations:
a) In the check-in concourse, upstream from
counters.

(b) In-line, immediately past check-in counters

(c) In-line, in the outbound luggage room.

 CONT..
• NB :Airport operators, in consultation with
airlines, must carefully determine the number
of screening machines required, based on
anticipated peak demand, and taking into
account potential equipment unavailability.
Explosive Vapor Detectors
 CONT..
• NB:The first type is easier to implement
because it requires minimal infrastructure
changes. However, it occupies valuable
terminal space and causes inconvenience to
passengers. Luggage must be manually
loaded, which reduces the system operation.
 CONT..
• NB:The second and third types are more
challenging and expensive to install, especially
in an existing terminal (some airports had to
remove doors and even demolish walls or
partitions to carry the equipment to its
operation allocation, and then re-install or
rebuilt them). However their processing rate is
high, up to four hundred pieces of luggage per
hour.
 Economics
• Current Aviation Environment
• Airports generate their operating revenues
from two sources:
 Aeronautical Revenue
 Non-aeronautical Revenue
• N B: Any fluctuation in the level few years
of traffic affects both sources of revenues.
 CONT…
• Airport economics must start with an outline
of the economic situation of airlines, the
airport's main customer and partner.
 What Drives Demand for Air
Transportation?
• Demand for air transportation is driven by:
 (a) Economic activity:
 Gross national product(GNP)- the total value of the
goods and services produced by the residents of a
nation during a specified period (Annually).
 Disposable income-
(Disposable personal income (DPI)- is the amount of
money that households have available for spending
and saving after income taxes have been accounted
for.
 CONT..
 Business traffic and tourism.
NB :The propensity/preference/attraction to travel
is affected by
• The cost
• The quality of the infrastructure
• Natural resources
• Culture
• An appropriate environment (e.g. health, security
and safety).
 CONT…
(b) Airfares.
• When any of these factors becomes
problematic, the demand for air travel will
decrease.
• Recent events that have affected airfares:
• Terrorist attacks
• Wars
• Epidemic outbreaks.
 The Airlines' Challenge
• In 2001, the airline industry was already suffering from
a general economic slowdown. It was caused by a
combination of factors such as:

(a) Overcapacity (too many empty aircraft seats).

(b) Competition from low-cost airlines, especially on

busy national routes.

(c) High operating cost levels.

 CONT..
• The September 11 events exacerbated this
problem and created an unprecedented industry-
wide crisis, lasting through 2002, 2003, and 2004.
• key figures and facts include:
• (a) Loss of 35 billion dollars between 2001 and
2004 (the losses incurred in 2001 and 2002
alone equal the total profits from 1945 to 2000).
 CONT….
• (b) Loss of 200,000 airline jobs (400,000 industry-wide).

• (c) Several major carriers that had been in operation for

decades went bankrupt/inability to repay debts or loans.

• (d) Other carriers requested bankruptcy protection and

re-organised themselves.

• (e) Losses in 2004 are estimated to be in the order of 5

billion dollars
 CONT…
• (f) The airline industry may break even in 2005
if the price of oil remains stable around 36
dollars a barrel.
Challenges faced by airlines are to:
(a) Restore the confidence of the public in air
travel.

(b) Absorb the cost increases generated by

enhanced security requirements and
insurance.

(c) Restore their profitability.

 Airlines' Actions
• Airlines have taken drastic steps to reduce
their costs and increase their efficiency.
• N B: In spite of a marked recovery in 2004,
airline yields are diminishing/decreasing.
 The Airports' Challenge
• Economic challenges faced by airports:
(a) Reduced revenues from aeronautical and
non-aeronautical sources
(b) Additional security expenses

(c) Increases in insurance costs

 Airports Actions
• Steps taken by airports to cope with
diminishing revenues increasing expenditures:
 Cutbacks /reduction in operating
expenditures
 Employee layoffs
 Cutbacks/reduction in capital expenditures
 CONT…
NB: Airports must adjust to reality and be
responsive to the needs and means of the
airlines. Airlines need efficient, affordable
facilities and services. In particular, low-cost
airlines need low-cost airports to thrive/ to do
well.
 Cont…
• NB: Airlines want to have a say in the
development of facilities that affect their
operations and their costs. (participation).
• NB : They also want airport pricing and charges to
be in line with ICAO's principles on user charges,
more directly linked to the delivery of specific
outputs (defined services, increased capacity and
agreed service quality), and subject to economic
oversight.
 Airports Financial Results
• Airlines and airports have suffered financially.
It confirms the statement that the health of
airports and airlines are closely related, as
close partners.
• In light of more positive results and expected
growth over the next few years, it is
anticipated that indicators will improve with
higher traffic levels and lower security costs.
 Capacity
Capacity is the power of containing a certain quantity of
things or the ability of a component to accommodate a
given level of traffic :
• Aircraft
• People
• Luggage
• Freight
• Vehicles
N B: Capacity cannot be exceeded without
consequences.
 Congestion
• Congestion is an excessive accumulation
causing disorder and delays.

• Delay
• A delay is a restraint of the motion of
something or an increase of the time
necessary to do something.
 Cont…
At an airport, delays can occur in all processing
points:
• Runways
• Taxiways
• Stands
• All terminal processing facilities
• Access infrastructure and parking lots.
 CONT…
The consequences of delay are:
• Poor level of service.
• Customer dissatisfaction.
• Unsafe conditions.
 Planning for Peak Demand
• Forecasted peak demand determines the size
of facilities that must be provided.
• Providing facilities sized to accommodate the
highest peak (which may occur only once a
year) would result in uneconomical and
wasteful operations.
 CONT…
• Airport facilities are normally designed
to accommodate a typical/normal/average
peak, as opposed to the highest peak. In
practical terms, it means that, for few hours or
days during the year, there will be an
acceptable level of overload.
 Characteristics of Airport Demand
N B: Airports display large variations in demand
over time:
 Hourly
 Daily
 Monthly
NB: Peaking characteristics also vary with the type
of passengers:
 Business
 Leisure
 Conflicting Objectives
• airlines want to maximize fleet utilization to
improve load factors by offering services at
the most attractive times.
• The airport operator and various providers of
processing services (security, Government
Controls, concessionaires) would like to
spread demand evenly to keep the amount of
facilities to be provided to a minimum.
 Cont….
• Fleet size refers to the number of planes or
aircraft of similar model or makes operated by
an airline.
• Many airlines around the world have
increased their flight size in order to meet
high passenger demands.
 Strategies to Bring Demand and Capacity
into Balance
 Make more efficient use of available capacity.
• By sharing available capacity, the need to
expand may be postponed or eliminated.
• On the airside, imposing a maximum time that
aircraft can spend on a stand also makes
better use of the available number of stands.
 CONT…
• Manage demand.
• Demand may be curtailed by diverting it to
other, less challenged facilities.
• Implementing higher user fees at peak times
may shift demand to less busy hours.
• Diverting some types of air traffic to other,
under utilized airports in the area (especially
light general aviation).
 CONT…..
• Diverting passenger access from road to rail
may yield some relief on parking lots and
congested access roads.(Landside).
 Cont……
 Expand facilities.
It increases capacity upon
commissioning/authorization.
Disadvantages
• It is capital intensive.
• It may create further demand.
• It takes time to provide.
• it may lead to unused capacity
• create a financial burden if traffic levels drop.
 Cont….
NB :In the event that the infrastructure proves
unable to accommodate additional demand,
airlines will be obliged to reject some demand
for air travel.
 Smart Solutions to Capacity Problems
• Technology
-Technology allows airports and airlines to do
more with existing facilities by reducing
demand on certain facilities.
 Paperless tickets reduce demand on check-in
and ticketing concourses as passengers will
use ticket and boarding pass
dispensers/kiosks.
 Cont……
• Smart Terminal Design
• Some terminals have the right amount of floor
space but it is improperly allocated:
• A re-balancing of internal floor space can
provide relief at a cost inferior to an
expansion.
 CONT….
Smart Operational Procedures
• Common use check-in and ticketing counters,
reduce the overall number of counters required,
with corresponding savings and delays in expansion.
• Airlines provide a special passenger service whereby
those passengers who carry light checked luggage
can retrieve it directly from the aircraft upon
disembarking, thereby reducing demand on
inbound luggage systems and waiting time in the
arrivals concourse.
 Capacity Cycles
• Capacity problems at airports fluctuate in
accordance with cycles.
• When traffic levels decrease capacity
problems are temporarily alleviated/reduced.
• After a facility has been expanded, the
capacity provided to meet long-term
requirements eliminates congestion, until such
time as demand equals capacity again.
Where Are We Now in the Capacity Cycle?

• From 2001 to 2004, with worldwide unstable traffic

levels and security threats, states, airlines, and
airports concentrated their efforts on meeting the
challenge of security threat levels.
• Nevertheless, this notion/opinion/sentiments had
to change dramatically, as air travel proved resilient
to crises (security and health threats, financial
recession/decline, volcanic eruptions) and many
airports in emerging markets were already
operating at or near design capacity.
 CONT……
NB: When an airport faces unacceptable
congestion and delays, gradual strategies
should be implemented, starting with those
that increase the efficiency of existing
facilities.
Demand management and expansion of
facilities should then be considered in that
order.
 New Aircraft Types
• Major changes occurred, all related to
technological advances in power plants and to
the improvements that they allowed:
 The turboprop engine(used on cargo planes).
 The jet engine
 Supersonic commercial aircraft.( fly faster than
the speed of sound).
 Turning points:
 With the advent of the jet age,there was a
Sharp increase in take off distance which
affected runway length requirements.
 Sharp increase in seating capacity and aircraft
weight.
 Sharp increase in aircraft dimensions affecting
the size of stands and the minimum
separation between runways and taxiways.
 Cont….
N B: Improvements in aircraft characteristics are
always prompted by the following factors:
 Competition
 Need for improved operating efficiency
 Improved level of service for
 Passengers comfort
 Environmental considerations:
 Aircraft characteristics
 Faster aircraft, reducing flight time to
destination.
 Higher cruising altitude (made possible by
cabin pressurization), offering reduced fuel
consumption and a more comfortable ride.
 Larger aircraft, offering more space and
comfort for passengers, more economical
operations for airlines, and generating less
pressure on airspace capacity.
 Cont…..
 More efficient engines, offering lower fuel
consumption and an extended range.
 Quieter and cleaner engines, reducing noise
impact on communities and air pollution.
 Shorter take off distances and higher rate of
climb (reduce noise impact).
 Cont…..
 Better adapted to route structures (the right
aircraft for the right market).
 Quicker turnaround time (simpler ground
servicing).
 Evolution of Engines
• In the early years of air transportation, engine
manufacturers concentrated their effort on
designing more and more powerful piston
engines.
The Most Advanced Piston Engine
Commercial Aircraft
 CONT…..
• Turboprop engines seemed to be a better
alternative, as they were lighter and more
streamlined than the most powerful piston
engines of the time.
Turboprop Aircraft
 CONT….
• The efficiency of jet engines was improved
sufficiently for use on commercial aircraft, and
turboprop aircraft became less popular.
• As jet engines became more powerful and
reliable, heavy aircraft (which traditionally had
four engines) were fitted with three, then two
engines (B767, B777, A330).
Four Engine Aircraft
 CONT…
• The advent of commercial deregulation, and
the creation of the hub-and spoke concept,
generated a need for regional airlines,
operating smaller aircraft between hub and
feeder airports.
• Turboprop aircraft became popular again,
especially in the 35 to 70-seat range.
The hub and Spoke Concept
 CONT…….
• Further technological advances, there is a trend
to switch to small twin-engine jet aircraft for
regional carriers, as these aircraft are:
 Faster
 Quieter
 More economical
 More comfortable than their turboprop
counterparts.
 Impact of the Evolution of Aircraft on
Airport Facilities
• With the advent of the jet age, when runway
length requirements increased sharply,
runways had to be further lengthened.
• As aircraft became larger and heavier (Boeing
747), airports had to provide suitable length
runways, in the order of 3000 to 4000 meters.
 CONT…..
• Airports welcoming the A380, had to invest in
significant infrastructure modifications to
accommodate take-off, manoeuvring and
terminal facilities for improved aircraft
passenger handling.
A380
 Terminal Buildings and Aprons
• Jet aircraft prompted the invention of
passenger bridges, a marked safety, security,
and level of service improvement over apron
loading.
• With the advent of deregulation and of the
hub and spoke concept, airports had to quickly
adapt and modify their apron layout to
accommodate regional air carriers operating
turbo-prop aircraft
New Aircraft Types and Key Characteristics

• The A-380 will be, the largest commercial

aircraft ever put into service.
• Its height caused problems in the area of
obstacle restrictions and removal, especially at
airports where the apron is located near the
transitional surface.
 Future Aircraft Types (The Unknown)
• Supersonic Transport
• A supersonic transport (SST) is a civilian supersonic
aircraft designed to transport passengers at speeds
greater than the speed of sound.
• NB :The only SSTs to see regular service were the
Concord and the Tupolev Tu-144.
• NB: The last passenger flight of the Tu-144 was in
June 1978, and Concorde's A Supersonic transport
(SST) is last flight was on November 26, 2003.
 CONT….
• NB :From an airport perspective, supersonic
aircraft do not impose particular constraints
on airport facilities.
• More Efficient Aircraft
• Technological efforts appear to focus on
making aircraft more fuel efficient and quieter
(up to fifty percent) and likely to be achieved
through new wing designs and quieter
engines.
 Larger Aircraft
• Larger aircraft do not occupy much more
airspace and they carry more passengers than
smaller ones, thereby reducing the number of
much more airspace and they flights to be
operated.

•
 New Fuels
• One area of technology that is being actively
investigated is the potential use of alternative fuels in
the aviation industry.
• Airbus is fully engaged in various initiatives in this area
worldwide.
• Airbus expects that promising kerosene and bio-fuel
blends have been identified. Work is being done
towards this through support of projects such as
CALIN(Carburant Alternatives et systèmes Injection
innovants) and ALFA-BIRD(Alternative Fuels and Bio
fuels for Aircraft Development).
 Sustainable Development
• During the 1970s, some experts became
concerned that economic growth had a negative
impact on the environment and that it could, in
the long-term, jeopardize life on our planet.
• Sustainable development is an alternative
designed to preserve the future. It was formally
defined in 1987as “Development meeting the
needs of present generations without
compromising the ability of future generations to
meet their own.
 CONT…..
• In 1992, the United Nations convened the
“Earth Summit”, held in Rio-de-Janeiro and
attended by one hundred and seventy three
Heads of State.
• It sets goals for environment and development,
based on:
• Social
• Environmental
• Economic premises.
 CONT…..
• The Kyoto Accord(Japan) is an international
treath whereby countries agree to reduce the
amount of greenhouse gases they emit. The
reduction target is set at 5% below the 1990
levels, to be reached by 2012.
• In 1995 the United Nations defined one
hundred and thirty four indicators of human
activities and processes having an impact on
sustainable development.
 CONT……
Some of these indicators include :
• Demographic growth(human population).
• level of education
• Access to potable water
• The emission of green house effect gases. (water
vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and
ozone).
NB :This programme is designed to implement
sustainable development around the world, at the
national and local levels.
 CONT…….
• In 1999, the United Nations launched an initiative called
“Global Pact”. Its objective is to re-group the United
Nations, non-governmental organizations, and business
leaders around some shared commitments that take into
account the social and environmental impacts of
NB :Globalization is process of interaction and integration
among people, companies, and governments worldwide.

• .
 CONT…….
• In 2002, the United Nations held another
international conference in Johannesburg. It
reaffirmed sustainable development as a
central element of the international agenda
and gave new impetus to global action on the
protection of the environment.
 The Aviation Context
• The increase in the number of flights is likely
to generate an increase in the emission of
greenhouse gases by the aviation industry,
while global targets call for a reduction (Kyoto
Accord).
 Cont….
• Airports are often located in greenbelt areas that
support many species of fauna and flora (some
of them being endangered and protected).
• Operations and construction activities threaten
these species. One of the commitments of the
Rio-de-Janeiro Earth Summit calls for the
protection of biodiversity/the variety of plant
and animal life in the world or in a particular
habitat.
 Cont…..
NB :Many airports have been plagued/trouble
with poor neighbor relations due to aircraft
noise for many years.
 Sustainable Development at the Airport
Level
• The issue of sustainable development is
gathering increased importance with airports,
airlines and governments, all conscious of the
need to be responsive to such major public
issues.
 Cont…….
• Airport Policies–Corporate Level: An airport
Sustainable Development Programme should
include the following elements:
 An Environmental Charter spelling out the
airport's formal commitments to protect the
environment for future generations.
 A multi-year environmental action plan.
 A formal and transparent public
communication plan with affected residents.
 Cont…..
 An annual environmental report, clearly
showing achievements against set goals (it can
be part of the Airport Annual Report).
 ISO 14001 Certification (desirable).
International organization for standardization. It
is an international standard-setting body .
 Cont……
NB : ISO 14001: 2015 sets out the criteria for an
environmental management system and can
be certified to.
It maps out a framework/structure that a
company or organization can follow to set up
an effective environmental management
system.
 Airport Procedures
• Airports need to ensure that their operations
are conducted in ways that minimize Noise:

• Ensure aircraft operators comply with noise

abatement/removal/reducing procedures,
implement land use compatibility policies,
deal with all complaints relative to aircraft
noise.
 CONT…..
(a) Air Quality: Measure and reduce pollution.
Convert airport vehicles to non-polluting
sources of energy, to reduce the emission of
greenhouse gases.
• Convert heating equipment to non-polluting
sources of energy to reduce the emission of
greenhouse gases.
 CONT….
(c) Soil Quality: Ensure all tanks and pipelines
containing pollutants comply with applicable
laws and regulations. Monitor them for leaks.
(d) Energy Consumption: Measure and reduce.
Develop and implement an airport-wide
energy consumption management plan
(reduce engine idling time, install timers or
automatic switches on lighting systems). Train
employees to be energy-conscious.
 CONT……
(e) Domestic and Industrial Waste: Measure and
reduce. Implement an airport-wide selective
re-cycling programme. Burn domestic waste to
produce heat.
NB : Airports also need to ensure that new
facility and infrastructure development is
done in ways compatible with the
preservation of wildlife and natural resources.
 CONT…..
NB : When developing a new runway or terminal, the
preservation of existing fauna and flora must be
taken into account during the design stage. If trees
must be removed, an equivalent number of trees
should be planted elsewhere.
• NB :Airports must at least meet applicable
environmental regulations and standards. As an
objective for ongoing improvement, airports should
strive to continually adopt best management
practices.
The Challenge of Sustainable Development

• Although everybody agrees that sustainable

development is a good objective, reality
shows that different demands generate
conflicts. For example, as people become
more affluent, they wish to travel more by air.
• They also have higher expectations in terms of
their desire to protect the environment. They
expect a higher of quality of life, generating a
lower tolerance for pollution and disturbance.
 CONT….
• Friction between communities and their
airports will get worse without a pro-active
approach on the part of airports to establish a
meaningful dialogue with the community they
serve.
 THE END THE END
• THE END THE END THE END

• MODULE 6

• AIRPORT ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

• BYE BYE BYE
• BY: KIPYEGON CHAMNDANY Z.