DIRE DAWA UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF SOCIAL SCIENCE AND HUMANITIES

DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY

COURSE: GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY

By:
Dargie Y. (M.A in Social Psychology)
 CHAPTER ONE
ESSENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY

Chapter one Learning outcomes

• Define psychology
• Show historical roots of Psychology as a science
• Point out the goals of psychology
• Identify early schools and modern perspectives of
psychology
• Discuss the basis of differences among perspectives of
psychology
• Identify subfields of psychology
• Differentiate the major research methods in psychology
• Explore the major steps of scientific research in
psychology
ESSENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY

• “Psychology" is derived from two Greek words 'psyche' and

‘logos’.
i.e Psyche refers to mind, soul or sprit or life
logos mean study, knowledge or discourse or explanation
 In combination- the study of the mind, soul, or sprit.
Commonly,
• Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes.
 Science: uses scientific methods, systematic, follow steps to study
behavior and mental processes.
 Behavior: all of our outward (overt) actions such as talking, facial
expressions, movement.
 Mental processes: all the internal (covert) activities like our minds,
such as thinking, feeling, remembering.
 GOALS OF PSYCHOLOGY

• As a science, psychology has four goals;

description, explanation, prediction, and control.
1. Description: involves observing the behavior and
noticing everything about it.
 It is a search answers for; What is happening?
Where does it happen? To whom does it happen?
And under what circumstances does it seem to
happen?
 GOALS OF PSYCHOLOGY Cont..

2. Explanation: Why is it happening? about trying to

find explanations for the observed behavior.
 This helps in the process of forming theories of
behavior (A theory is a general explanation of a set of
observations or facts).
3.Prediction: Anticipating (determining) what will
happen in the future. How an individual will perform
within environment and stimuli.
4. Control: How can it be changed? Control or modify or
change the behavior from undesirable one (such as failing
in school) to a desirable one (such as academic success).
 Goals of psychology with example:
• Description: carefully observe and record everything
possible about patients thought processes, behavior, and
interactions with the environment. E.g. Stress or anxiety
• Explanation: state causes of the patient’s behaviour
(anxiety, stress), some may say biological, or
environmental, or personal.
• Prediction: if we get a result of environmental
situations made the person anxious or stressed, for
instance crowd, illness or death of others etc.
• Control/change: altering the behaviour through
different mechanisms, for instance training how to cope
up or how to modify the crowd environment etc.
Historical Background and Major Perspectives in
Psychology

Phases in the History of Psychology

• Initially the soul; of man interested the

philosophers, then mind and conscious
experience, and lastly observable behavior.
 Historical Background of Psychology

• Psychology, in effect, is the child of two parents

• Philosophy: the pursuit of wisdom through logical
reasoning.
• Physiology: the study of vital life process of an
organism E.g. digestion, respiration, reproduction
• It began as a science in 1879 in Leipzig Germany
• With the establishment of Wundt’s psychology
laboratory.
• He developed the technique of objective introspection.
(Looking inward or inside).
 Early Schools of Psychology
There are five early schools of psychology. Namely
Structuralism, functionalism, Gestalt psychology,
behaviorism, and psychoanalysis.
• These schools differ in three significant ways.
• Object of study, i.e. what they studied. (Conscious mind,
unconscious mind, and overt behavior).
• Goal (analyze the components of the mind or observing
the effect of the environment on behavior).
• Method (Introspection, observation, clinical case studies,
etc...).
 Early Schools of Psychology

1. Structuralism: views psychology as a study of

structure of mind.
 Founded by Titchener. Wilhelm Wundt was the
proponent.
 Their goal was to find out the units or elements mind
(sensations, images, and feelings).
• The elements of conscious experience were considered to
be of two kinds.
• These are:
– Sensations: images, sounds, smells..
– Feelings: love, fear, joy, and so on.
 The method used was introspection “looking within”.
2. Functionalism: views psychology as a study of function
of the mind.
 Founded by William James (1848-1910), American
Psychologist.
 Unlike Wundt and Titchener, James focused on how the
mind allows people to function in the real world; how
people work, play, and adapt to their surroundings.
 He developed research methods; questionnaires, mental
tests and objective descriptions of behavior.
 Generally, they assume psychological processes are
adaptive, to survive to their surroundings.
3. Gestalt psychology: views psychology as a study of the whole
mind.
 Founded Max Wertheimer and his colleagues in the 20 th century (Kurt
Koffka &Wolfgang Kohler).
 Argued that the mind is not made up of combinations of elements.
 “Gestalt" refers to form, whole, configuration or pattern.
 According to them, the mind should be thought of as a result of the
whole pattern of sensory activity and the relationships and
organizations within their pattern.
 In brief, the gestalt psychologists acknowledge consciousness.
 They held that "the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. Means
mind is greater than its parts (images, sensations, and feelings).
4.Behaviorism:
 View psychology as a study of observable and
measurable behaviors.
 Founded by John B. Watson
 Other proponents ; E. Thorndike and B. F. Skinner.
 The study of observable and measurable behavior and
nothing more about hidden mental processes.
 Watson, revolutionized psychology by changing the
subject matter of psychology from the study of
conscious experience to the study of behavior.
(impossible to observe (mind and consciousness).
 Believe that we cannot define consciousness than
define the soul; we cannot locate it or measure it.
• They believed human beings have Tabula Rasa (blank
slate) on which the environment writes to create
personality.
– i.e. they stressed the importance of the environment
in shaping an individual’s behavior.
 Behaviorism had three other characteristics;
(conditioned response, learned rather than unlearned
behaviors, and focus on animal behavior.)
 Learners are passive and reactive when the
environment stimulates them.
5. Psychoanalysis: focus on components of the unconscious part of
the mind.
 Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) is the founder.
 He was the most controversial and most popular in the study of
behavior and mental processes.
 Based on his patients’ reports of depression, nervousness, and
obsessive habits, he becomes convinced that symptoms had mental,
not bodily cases.
 Conclude that their distress was due to conflicts and emotional
traumas that had occurred in early childhood and that were too
threatening to be remembered consciously.
 Argued conscious awareness is the tip of the mental iceberg beneath
the visible tip lays the unconscious part of the mind.
 The unconscious which is the subject matter of psychoanalysis
contains hidden wishes, passions, guilty secrets, unspeakable
yearnings, and conflict between desire and duty.
 We are not aware of our unconscious urges and
thoughts and they make themselves known in
dreams, slip of the tongue, apparent accidents and
even jokes.
 He used clinical case studies (hypnosis and Dream
analysis) as a method.
• Focuses on that childhood experience had great
influence on personality.
– ” the child is the father of a man”.
 Generally, behavior is determined by powerful
inner forces, buried in the unconscious mind,
psychic determinism.
 Modern Schools of Psychology

1. Psychodynamic Perspective:
►Its origins is Freud's theory of psychoanalysis
►Emphasizes unconscious dynamics within the individual
such as inner forces, conflicts or instinctual energy.
• The influence of unconscious mental behavior on
everyday behavior
• The role of child personality in determining adult
personality
• The role of intrapersonal conflict in determining human
behavior
► Think themselves as archaeologists of the mind.
2. Behavioral Perspective:
►Emphasize on the role of previous learning experiences
in shaping the behavior of an organism.
►Concerned with how the environment affects the
person’s actions.
►Behaviorists focus on environmental conditions (rewards
and punishments)
►Sometimes called "black box" psychology, treats the
mind as a mechanical black box , but not on the
processes.
3. Humanistic Perspective:
►American psychologists Carl Rogers and Abraham
Maslow.
►Stresses the uniqueness of human beings, human
values and subjective experiences.
►People are naturally endowed with the capacity to
make decisions about their lives and to control their
behavior.
►Places greater importance on the individual’s free
will.
►Its goal was helping people to express themselves
creatively and achieve their full potential or self-
actualization.
4. Cognitive Perspective: Jean Piaget, famous
►Emphasizes what goes on in people's heads; how
people reason, remember, understand language,
solve problems, explain experiences and form
beliefs.
• Concerned about the mental processes.
• Explore behavior by; electrical recording of brain
activity, electrical stimulation and radioactive
tracing of metabolic activity in the nervous system.
• It explains how people’s thoughts and explanations
affect their actions, feelings and choices.
5. Neurobiological (Biological Perspective):
• Focuses on how bodily events or functioning of the
body affect behavior, feelings, and thoughts.
• Holds that an understanding of the genetic makeup,
brain and the nervous system is central.
• Study how biology (brain and brain chemicals) affect
psychological processes (learning, performance,
perception of reality, the experience of emotions).
• Pointed out that biology and behavior interact
reciprocally.
• Believe we are physical beings who evolved over a
long time and that is genetic heritage can predispose
us to behave in a certain way.
6. Socio-cultural Perspective:
 Recent and centers on the social and cultural forces on
the individual that affects human behavior.
 Consider roles;
 How group affect attitudes and behaviors
 Why authority and other people like spouse, lovers,
friends, bosses, parents, and strangers affect each of us.
 Examine how cultural rules and values affect people's
development, behavior, and feelings.
Perspectives Conceptual Importance of
Emphasis:
Focus Environment/Person
Mental Processes

Biological Biological
functioning as basis
Moderate
Person
6. Socio-cultural
of behavior Perspective:
Psychoanalytic
 Recent andUnconscious
centers on of the social and cultural
Max (Unconscious) forces
determinant Person
behavior
on the individual that affects human behavior.
Cognitive Nature of thought Max
 Consider roles;
process
understanding
&
of Both
the world
 How group
Behavioral
affect attitudes and
Observable Min
behaviors
behavior
 Why authority and other people like spouse, Environment
lovers,
friends, bosses,
Humanistic parents, andMax
Human nature to
strangers affect each of
reach potential Person
us.
 Examine how cultural rules and values affect
people's development, behavior, and feelings.
 Branches/Sub Fields of Psychology

• Generally speaking, psychology can be roughly

divided into two major areas:
1st-Research Area/Academic field of specialization
2nd -Practice Area- through which our knowledge is
applied to solving problems in the real world
 Branches/Sub Fields of Psychology

1. Developmental psychology- studies the physical,

cognitive and psychological changes across the life span.
 Focuses on the biological and environmental factors
that contribute to human development.
2. Personality Psychology- focuses on the relatively
enduring traits and characteristics of individuals.
 Study topics like self-concept, aggression, moral
development.
3. Social Psychology- deals with people’s social
interactions, relationships, social perception, and attitudes.
4. Cross-cultural Psychology - examines the role of
culture in understanding behavior, thought, and emotion.
 Branches/Sub Fields of Psychology

 Compares the nature of psychological processes in

different cultures, with a special interest in whether or not
psychological phenomena are universal or culture-specific.
5. Industrial Psychology- applies psychological principles
in industries and organizations to increase the productivity of
that organization.
6. Forensic Psychology- applies psychological principles to
improve the legal system (police, testimony, etc..).
7. Educational Psychology - concerned with the application
of psychological principles and theories in improving the
educational process such as curriculum, teaching, and
administration of academic programs.
 Branches/Sub Fields of Psychology

8. Health Psychology- applies psychological principles to

the prevention and treatment of physical illness and
diseases.
9. Clinical Psychology- is a field that applies
psychological principles to the prevention, diagnosis, and
treatment of psychological disorders.
10. Counseling Psychology - helps individuals with less
severe problems than those treated by clinical
psychologists.
11. Psychiatrist- is a field that diagnoses and treats
psychological disorders by using medical and
psychological forms of therapy.
Researches Methods in Psychology

What is research?

The importance of research?

Researches Methods in Psychology Cont..

Definition of Terms
 Research is:
– It is a systematic and scientific way
– The scientific search for investigation
– Process of gathering, analyzing data to reach sound,
reliable, and valid conclusions.
 Research in psychology: uses data on human feelings,
beliefs, thoughts, attitudes, needs, perception, and related
factors influencing human behaviors
 Importance of Research:
– To establish novel facts,
– Solve new or existing problem,
– Prove new ideas or develop new theories
 Definition of Terms
• Scientific method: a process of testing ideas through
systematic observations, experimentations, and
statistical analysis.
• Theory: is an integrated set principles about
observed facts intended to describe and explain some
aspects of the experience.
• Hypotheses: is a tentative proposition about the
relationship between two or more variables or
phenomena. E.g. Males have high self - confidence in
making decisions than females.
 Major Types of Research Methods

• There are different methods of research in

psychology;
1. Descriptive Research Methods
2. Correlation Methods
3. Experimental Research Methods
1. Descriptive Research Methods
 is descriptive because the researcher simply records
what she/he has systematically observed.
 Includes:
• Naturalistic observation
• Survey method
• Case study
 I- Naturalistic Observation
• Observing animals or human
behaviors in their natural setting.
• Recording the behavior observed
without interference.
• Allows researchers to get a
realistic picture of how behavior
occurs
• The limitations can be:
 If animals or people know they
are being watched will not
behave normally
 Observer bias; he/she wants to
observe and ignores others
 II-Case Study Method
• It is an intensive investigation of one or
a few individuals and to single
psychological phenomena.
• An individual is studied in great detail.
(Advantage)
 Can’t be used for generalization
(Disadvantage)
E.g. about patients being treated for
psychological disorders (depression).
– can be a family, a group of
delinquents, dropouts and teenagers.
• Depth of analysis by using:
– observation,
– interview, and/or
– psychological testing.
III-Survey Method
• Used to collect a huge amount of data on a
very large group of people.
• Needs a careful selection of a
representative sample (Disadvantage)
• Getting information by asking them all
the same question regarding peoples’:
– characteristics
– attitudes,
– opinions or behaviors
– Example: the central statistical office
(CSO) conducts a large-scale survey.
• Survey can be
– written (questionnaire) or
– oral (interview)
 2.Correlation Research

• Measures the relationship between two or more

variables.
• Identifying predictive relationships among naturally
occurring variables.
– help at least to predict human behavior.
 The correlation result of the research is expressed
in terms of magnitude and direction.
 The direction of relationship between the
variables that ranges from +1 to -1.
E.g.; age, sex, grade, time, attitude, behaviour's;
aggression, passive, emotion
A. Positive correlation:
 the two variables increase in the same direction;

– A high score on one is linked to a high score on the other

(vice versa).
E.g. - If “A” increase “B” also increase
- If “A” decrease “B” also decrease.
Example: Entrance exam results & academic achievement
in university.
 B. Negative correlation:
 the two variables increase in opposite directions;
– A high score on one is linked to a low score on the
other.
– E.g. - If “A” increase “B” decrease,
If “A” decrease “B” increase.
Example: Stress and Happiness
C. Zero correlations:
 No relationship.
E.g. Eye color versus academic achievement
3. Experimental Research Methods

 Conducted to see a cause-effect relationship

between two or more variables
 It is the most precise, planned, systematic
research conducted under a controlled situation.
 Involve at least one independent variable and one
dependent variable.
• Variable is an attribute or factor or event that is
changing
e.g. age, sex, religion, IQ, level of education,
ethnicity, belief, feeling, aggression, prejudice,
criminal behavior, eyewitness memory etc
• Independent variable (IV): the variable that is
directly manipulated by the experimenter to see its
effect on dependent variable.
– It is the potential cause of behavior
• Dependent variable(DV):behavior that is observed
and measured by the experimenter
– Its change depends up on changes in the
independent variable.
 Extraneous variable- (EV)
– other variables besides the independent variable
– influence the dependent variable
– not controlled in the experiment
• Experimental group: exposed to independent/treatment
variable or conditions expected to create change.
• Control group: a group that is similar to the
experimental group, except that it is not exposed to the
treatment condition.
Example:
• The effect of violent films on social behavior of
preschool children.
• From this example
• IV: violent film
• DV: social behavior of children
Steps of Scientific research methods

Step one - Perceiving the Problem - noticing something

attention catching in the surrounding for which one would
like to have an explanation.
Step two - Forming Hypothesis - after having an
observation on surroundings (perceiving the problem), you
might form an educated guess about the explanation for
your observations
Step three - Testing the Hypothesis - the researcher
employs appropriate research methodology and collects
ample data (information) to accept or reject the proposed
statement.
Step four - Drawing Conclusions - the justification for
the result is presented. Once the hypothesis is tested it
will be found that the hypothesis was either supported or
was not supported by the data gathered.
Step five - Reporting the Result - the researcher would
want to write up exactly what she/he did, why she/he
did, and what she/he found.
 So that, others can learn from what she/he has already
accomplished, or failed to accomplish.
 This allows others to predict and modify behavior
based on the findings.
 End of Chapter one!!!
If you have any questions?