INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

CHAPTER 6
SKIN OVERVIEW

• Skin: The largest organ in the body, covering 1.5 to 2.0 square meters, and accounting for about 15% of body weight.
• Layers: Consists of three primary layers:
• Epidermis: The outermost layer made of stratified squamous epithelium.
• Dermis: The middle layer providing structural support and containing blood vessels.
• Hypodermis: The deepest layer, primarily composed of adipose tissue, which cushions and insulates.
• Functions:
• Protection: Shields internal organs from injury, pathogens, and harmful chemicals.
• Sensation: Contains sensory receptors for touch, pain, temperature, and pressure.
• Thermoregulation: Regulates body temperature through sweat production and blood flow adjustments.
• Vitamin D Synthesis: Converts sunlight into vitamin D, essential for calcium absorption.

• Skin Types: Thick skin (palms, soles) has a thicker epidermal layer compared to thin skin (rest of the body).
EPIDERMIS STRUCTURE

• Type: Made of stratified squamous epithelium that is continually regenerating.

• Avascular: Lacks direct blood supply; receives nutrients through diffusion from the dermis.
• Cell Types:
• Stem Cells: Located in the stratum basale; responsible for producing new keratinocytes.
• Keratinocytes: Predominant cells in the epidermis; produce keratin, a protein that strengthens and waterproofs the skin.
• Melanocytes: Found in the stratum basale; produce melanin, which gives skin its color and provides UV protection.
• Tactile Cells: Also known as Merkel cells; involved in the sensation of touch.
• Dendritic Cells: Part of the immune system; detect and initiate an immune response against pathogens.

• Layering: The epidermis is organized into multiple layers that include the stratum basale, spinosum,
granulosum, lucidum (in thick skin), and corneum.
EPIDERMAL LAYERS EXPLAINED

• Stratum Basale: The deepest layer; contains stem cells that divide to form new keratinocytes. Also houses
melanocytes and tactile cells.
• Stratum Spinosum: Several layers thick; cells here are connected by desmosomes, which give a spiny
appearance. Contains dendritic cells for immune surveillance.
• Stratum Granulosum: Middle layer; cells begin to die and form a water-resistant barrier due to
keratohyalin granules.
• Stratum Lucidum: Thin, clear layer found only in thick skin areas like palms and soles; provides extra
protection.
• Stratum Corneum: Outermost layer; consists of dead, flattened keratinized cells that shed regularly.
Provides a durable barrier against environmental damage.
KERATINOCYTE LIFECYCLE

• Production: Originates in the stratum basale, where stem cells continuously divide to produce
new keratinocytes.
• Migration: As new cells are produced, older cells are pushed upwards through the layers, where
they become increasingly flattened and filled with keratin.
• Keratinization: Process by which cells accumulate keratin as they move towards the surface,
eventually becoming part of the outer protective layer.
• Exfoliation: Dead keratinized cells are shed from the surface approximately every 30-40 days.
• Increased Turnover: In response to friction or pressure, such as on the palms or soles, leading
to callus formation.
DERMIS OVERVIEW

• Thickness: Varies greatly across different body regions, ranging from 0.2 mm to 4 mm.
• Components: Consists of connective tissue with collagen and elastin fibers.
• Layers:
• Papillary Layer: The upper layer of the dermis; made of loose areolar connective tissue that interlocks
with the epidermis.
• Reticular Layer: The deeper, thicker layer; composed of dense irregular connective tissue providing
structural support and elasticity.

• Functions: Provides strength and elasticity, houses blood vessels and nerves, and supports
epidermal health through nutrient supply.
PAPILLARY LAYER DETAILS

• Structure: Composed of loose areolar connective tissue; includes thin collagen

fibers and elastic fibers.
• Dermal Papillae: Small, nipple-like projections that interlock with the epidermis,
increasing surface area and enhancing nutrient exchange.
• Function: Supports the epidermis by providing nutrients and removing waste.
Contains capillary loops that supply oxygen and nutrients.
• Sensory Receptors: Houses Meissner's corpuscles, which are responsible for
detecting light touch and vibration.
RETICULAR LAYER DETAILS

• Structure: Thick layer made of dense irregular connective tissue; includes a network of
collagen and elastin fibers.
• Collagen Fibers: Provide tensile strength, preventing overstretching and tearing.
• Elastin Fibers: Allow the skin to stretch and recoil, maintaining skin elasticity.
• Stretch Marks: Result from rapid stretching of the skin causing tears in collagen fibers,
often seen in pregnancy or rapid weight gain.
• Additional Components: Contains sweat glands, sebaceous glands, hair follicles, and
nerve endings.
HYPODERMIS (SUBCUTANEOUS TISSUE)

• Composition: Predominantly consists of areolar and adipose tissue.

• Functions:
• Cushioning: Provides a protective layer that absorbs shocks and reduces impact on underlying tissues.
• Energy Storage: Stores fat, which serves as an energy reserve.
• Insulation: Helps to retain body heat and maintain body temperature.
• Distribution: Varies by body region and individual characteristics; tends to be thicker in
women and infants.
• Attachment: Connects the skin to underlying structures such as muscles and bones.
SKIN COLOR AND PIGMENTATION

• Melanin: The primary pigment responsible for skin color, produced by melanocytes.
• Types:
• Eumelanin: Dark brown or black pigment; higher levels result in darker skin tones.
• Pheomelanin: Yellow to red pigment; contributes to lighter skin tones and red hair.
• Skin Variations:
• Dark Skin: Higher melanin content provides better protection against UV radiation.
• Light Skin: Less melanin; more susceptible to UV damage and sunburn.
• Carotene: A pigment that can impart a yellowish hue to the skin.
• Hemoglobin: Affects skin color through blood flow; oxygenated blood gives a pinkish hue.
DIAGNOSTIC SKIN COLORS

• Cyanosis: Bluish skin color due to insufficient oxygen in the blood; commonly seen in respiratory or
cardiovascular issues.
• Erythema: Redness of the skin caused by increased blood flow to the surface, often due to inflammation
or infection.
• Pallor: Pale skin resulting from decreased blood flow or anemia; can be an indicator of shock or illness.
• Albinism: Genetic condition where the body produces little to no melanin, leading to white skin and hair.
• Jaundice: Yellowish skin tone caused by elevated levels of bilirubin in the blood, often related to liver
dysfunction.
• Hematoma: Bruising or localized collection of blood under the skin, typically resulting from trauma.
HAIR STRUCTURE AND TEXTURE

• Hair Types:
• Straight Hair: Characterized by a round cross-sectional shape; tends to lie flat.
• Wavy Hair: Oval cross-section; results in a wavy appearance.
• Curly Hair: Flat cross-section; causes hair to curl or coil.
• Color:
• Brown/Black: Result of high levels of eumelanin.
• Red: High levels of pheomelanin.
• Blond: Low levels of eumelanin and pheomelanin.
• Gray/White: Decreased melanin production, often with air trapped in the hair medulla.

• Growth Cycle: Includes three phases:

• Anagen: Growth phase where hair actively grows.
• Catagen: Transitional phase; hair growth slows and the follicle shrinks.
• Telogen: Resting phase; hair falls out and is replaced by new growth.
HAIR GROWTH CYCLE

• Anagen Phase: Active growth phase; about 90% of scalp hair follicles are in this phase,
producing new hair.
• Catagen Phase: Transitional phase; hair growth ceases, and the follicle shrinks and detaches
from the dermal papilla.
• Telogen Phase: Resting phase; hair is shed, and the follicle remains inactive until the next
anagen phase begins.
• Daily Loss: Normal hair loss ranges from 50 to 100 hairs per day.
• Alopecia: Medical condition causing hair thinning or baldness, which can be influenced by
genetics, hormones, and other factors.
HAIR FUNCTIONS

• Detection: Hair receptors alert the body to insects or other small stimuli on the skin’s
surface.
• Scalp Hair: Provides protection against UV radiation and insulation for the head.
• Pubic and Axillary Hair: Develops during puberty; believed to have a role in sexual
maturity and scent transmission.
• Guard Hairs: Located in the nose and ears; help to filter out foreign particles.
• Eyelashes/Eyebrows: Protect the eyes from debris and help in facial expression
communication.
NAILS STRUCTURE

• Nail Plate: The hard, visible part of the nail made of keratin.
• Free Edge: Portion of the nail that extends beyond the fingertip.
• Nail Body: The main part of the nail, which is attached to the nail bed.
• Nail Root: Located under the cuticle; the site where nail growth begins.
• Nail Fold: Skin that overlaps the edges of the nail plate.
• Nail Groove: The indentation where the nail plate sits within the nail fold.
• Nail Bed: The skin beneath the nail plate, providing nutrients and support.
• Hyponychium: Area beneath the free edge of the nail where dirt and debris can accumulate.
NAIL GROWTH AND ANATOMY

• Nail Matrix: The growth zone located at the proximal end of the nail; contains actively dividing
cells that produce the nail plate.
• Lunule: The white crescent-shaped area at the base of the nail, visible due to the thick matrix
cells.
• Eponychium (Cuticle): Thin layer of skin extending over the proximal end of the nail; helps
protect the matrix from infection.
• Growth Rate: Fingernails typically grow at a rate of about 1 mm per week, while toenails grow
more slowly.
• Function: Nails enhance fine motor skills and provide protection to the fingertips and toes.
SWEAT GLANDS OVERVIEW

• Apocrine Glands:
• Location: Found in specific areas such as the groin, axilla, areola, and beard regions.
• Secretion: Produces a thick, milky sweat containing proteins and fatty acids, which can lead to body odor.
• Function: Associated with stress and sexual arousal; may play a role in pheromone secretion.
• Bromhidrosis: Odor resulting from bacterial decomposition of apocrine sweat.

• Eccrine (Merocrine) Glands:

• Location: Distributed throughout the body, especially on the palms, soles, and forehead.
• Secretion: Produces a watery, clear sweat primarily composed of water and electrolytes.
• Function: Essential for temperature regulation through evaporative cooling.
SWEAT COMPOSITION AND FUNCTIONS

• Composition: Sweat is 99% water, with minor amounts of electrolytes (such as

sodium and potassium) and metabolic waste products.
• Acid Mantle: The slightly acidic pH of sweat (4-6) helps inhibit bacterial growth
and maintain skin health.
• Production: Begins as a filtrate of blood plasma, then is modified by sweat glands
before being excreted.
• Temperature Regulation: Evaporation of sweat from the skin surface helps to cool
the body and maintain a stable internal temperature.
SEBACEOUS GLANDS

• Function: Produce sebum, an oily substance that lubricates and waterproofs the skin and hair.
• Location: Found throughout the skin except for the palms and soles; concentrated on the
scalp and face.
• Types:
• Simple Alveolar: Glands with a single duct opening into a hair follicle.
• Holocrine: Gland type where cells disintegrate to release sebum.
• Sebum Production: Regulated by hormones; excess production can lead to acne and oily
skin.
SKIN DISEASES AND DISORDERS

• Acne: Common skin condition caused by clogged hair follicles and inflammation of sebaceous
glands.
• Eczema: Inflammatory skin condition characterized by itching, redness, and swelling.
• Psoriasis: Chronic autoimmune condition causing rapid skin cell turnover, leading to scaly
patches.
• Skin Cancer: Includes basal cell carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, and melanoma, often
linked to UV exposure.
• Dermatitis: General term for skin inflammation, which can be allergic, contact, or irritant in
nature.
SKIN AGING

• Collagen Loss: Decreases skin elasticity and firmness, leading to wrinkles and sagging.
• Elastin Degradation: Reduces skin’s ability to return to its original shape after stretching.
• Decreased Sebum Production: Leads to drier skin and more vulnerability to cracking.
• Thinning Epidermis: Results in reduced barrier function and increased susceptibility to injury.
• Altered Blood Flow: Affects skin color and temperature regulation.
• Pigmentation Changes: Can cause age spots or uneven skin tone due to changes in melanin
distribution.