NATURE-BIOINSPIRED

MATERIALS AND MECHANISMS

Pavithra K
Assistant professor of
Basic Science
https://www.nature.com/artic
les/s41427-021-00322-y
 ECHOLOCATION
Is a biological or technological process that involves emitting sound waves and listening
to the echoes that bounce back off of objects in the environment to determine their location,
distance, and shape.
• Ancient Greeks, for example, observed bats using echolocation to navigate and find food in
the dark.
• The scientific study of echolocation in animals, however, only began in the early 20th
century, with the pioneering work of British naturalist Donald Griffin.
• Griffin's research showed that bats were using echolocation to navigate and hunt and
helped to lay the foundation for the modern study of biological echolocation.
• In technology, the use of echolocation can be traced back to the early days of submarine
warfare.
• During World War I, the British navy developed a primitive form of sonar (known then as
"ASDIC") to detect submarines.
Comparison of biological echolocation and technological echolocation
1. Biological Echolocation
• Found in various animals such as bats, dolphins, and some species of whales.
• Relies on the emission of sound waves, usually in the form of clicks or vocalizations.
• Animals emit sound waves and listen for the echoes produced when the sound waves bounce off
objects in their environment.
• By analyzing the echoes, animals can determine the location, distance, and even the shape of
objects around them.
• This ability is mainly used for navigation, hunting, and communication in the animal kingdom.
• Biological echolocation is a natural adaptation that has evolved over millions of years.
2. Technological Echolocation
• Replicates the concept of biological echolocation using technological devices.
• Utilizes sound waves, typically generated by artificial sources such as sonar or ultrasonic
sensors.
• The information from the echoes is processed and interpreted by the technology to generate
useful data, such as distance, location, and object recognition.
• applications - navigation, robotics, obstacle detection, and medical imaging.
• It is a human-engineered solution inspired by the natural abilities of animals.
Principle of Echolocation Both biological and technological echolocation rely on the same basic
principles and have the same underlying purpose: to determine the location, distance, and shape of
objects in the environment using sound waves and their echoes.
• Is based on the emission of sound waves and the interpretation of the echoes that bounce back
from objects in the environment.
1. Sound Emission:
2. Propagation of Sound Waves: The emitted sound waves travel through the environment,
spreading out in all directions.
3. Object Interaction: When the sound waves encounter objects in the environment(obstacles
or prey, they interact with these objects),interaction can involve reflection, scattering, or
absorption of the sound waves.
4. Echo Reception: Some of the sound waves that interact with objects bounce back or echo
off them. These echoes carry information about the objects' distance, shape, composition,
and other characteristics.
5. Sensory Reception: In biological echolocation, this is typically specialized organs or
structures, such as bat ears or dolphin melon, while in technological echolocation, it is
achieved through sensors and receivers.
6. Echo Interpretation: The information contained in the echoes is analyzed and interpreted by
the organism or technology. This interpretation involves extracting relevant features from
the echoes and making sense of the spatial and temporal patterns present.
7. Perception and Response: Based on the interpretation of the echoes, the organism or
technology can perceive and understand the surrounding environment. This perception
enables the organism to navigate, locate objects, detect obstacles, or perform other
relevant tasks.
Comparing the Sound Emission and Reception in Biological Ecosystem and Technological
Ecosystem
Biological System Technological System
• Biological organisms,(bats • Technological systems rely
and cetaceans) have on artificial sound emission
specialized sound emission devices, such as speakers or
organs to produce sounds for transducers, to generate
echolocation. sound waves for
• Bats emit sounds using their echolocation.
larynx and modify the • Ultrasonic sensors or sonar
Sound Emission emitted sounds using systems emit sound waves
structures like the nose leaf through these devices,
or mouth cavity. typically using piezoelectric
• Dolphins and whales emit elements or transducers.
sounds through their
blowholes, producing clicks
or vocalizations.
 • Biological organisms possess • Technological systems use
specialized sensory reception sensors and receivers to
organs that allow them to capture and process the
detect and interpret the returning echoes.
returning echoes. • Ultrasonic sensors are
• Bats have highly sensitive commonly employed, which
ears designed to detect and consist of a transducer that
analyze ultrasonic emits sound waves and
Sensory Reception frequencies. receives the echoes.
• Dolphins and some whales • Sonar systems often
also receive echoes through incorporate hydrophones or
their lower jaw. other specialized underwater
• The jawbone conducts sound microphones to detect and
vibrations to the middle ear, interpret the echoes.
where they are converted
into nerve impulses for
interpretation by the brain.
History of Technological Echolocation - can be traced back to the early development of sonar
(sound navigation and ranging) technology.
• Early Sonar Development (late 19th century): The foundations of technological echolocation
were laid with the invention of the first practical underwater sound detection device called the
hydrophone. Developed by Reginald Fessenden in the late 19th century, the hydrophone
allowed for the detection of underwater sounds.
• World War I (early 20th century): for detecting submarines led to significant advancements in
sonar technology. Active sonar systems were developed, which involved the transmission of
sound waves and the reception of echoes to detect submerged objects.
• Further Advancements (mid-20th century): driven by military and scientific research. Sonar
systems were refined and improved for applications such as submarine detection, underwater
mapping, and marine research.
• Ultrasonic Applications (mid-20th century): In parallel with underwater sonar, ultrasonic
technology began to find applications in fields such as medicine, non-destructive testing, and
industrial imaging.
• Evolution of Echolocation Technologies (late 20th century - present): Advancements in signal
processing, sensors, and algorithms allowed for improved resolution, accuracy, and
interpretation of echoes. Echolocation technologies found applications in various fields
including robotics, autonomous vehicles, healthcare, and environmental monitoring.
Ultrasonography
• Ultrasonography is a medical imaging technique that uses high-frequency sound waves to
produce images of the internal organs and tissues of the body.
• It is also known as ultrasound imaging or sonography.
• The ultrasound machine emits high-frequency sound waves (usually in the range of 2 to 18
MHz) that travel through the body and bounce back off of the internal organs and tissues.
• The returning echoes are captured by the ultrasound machine and used to create images of the
internal structures
• Ultrasonography is a non-invasive, safe, and painless imaging method.
• Used to visualize a wide range of structures within the body, including the organs of the
abdomen, pelvis, and chest, as well as the uterus, fetus, and other soft tissues.
• It is commonly used in prenatal care to monitor the growth and development of the fetus and to
diagnose any potential problems.
• Ultrasonography has several advantages over other imaging methods, including its low cost,
ease of use, and lack of ionizing radiation. It is also portable and can be used in a variety of
settings, making it a valuable tool for medical professionals.
Uses of Ultrasonography
Versatile imaging method that is used in a wide range of medical applications.
1. Obstetrics and gynecology: Ultrasonography is commonly used to monitor the growth and
development of a fetus during pregnancy, as well as to evaluate the reproductive organs and
female pelvic organs for conditions such as ovarian cysts, fibroids, and endometrial cancer.
2. Abdominal imaging: Ultrasonography is used to image the organs of the abdomen, such as the
liver, gallbladder, pancreas, spleen, and kidneys, to diagnose conditions such as liver disease,
gallstones, pancreatitis, and kidney stones.
3. Musculoskeletal imaging: Ultrasonography is used to image the muscles, tendons, and
ligaments to diagnose conditions such as muscle strains, tendonitis, and ligament sprains.
4. Vascular imaging: Ultrasonography is used to image blood vessels, such as the arteries and
veins, to diagnose conditions such as blood clots, blockages, and aneurysms.
5. Eye and neck imaging: Ultrasonography is used to image the eyes and neck to diagnose
conditions such as cataracts, glaucoma, and thyroid nodules.
6. Emergency medicine: Ultrasonography is often used in emergency medicine to quickly and
accurately diagnose conditions such as appendicitis, pneumothorax, and fluid buildup in the
abdomen or chest.
Working Principle of Ultrasonography
The working principle of ultrasonography is based on the reflection of high-frequency
sound waves.
• Transducer: used to emit and receive high-frequency sound waves. The transducer is placed in
direct contact with the skin or inserted into the body through a gel.
• Emission of sound waves: The transducer emits high-frequency sound waves (usually in the
range of 2 to 18 MHz) into the body. These sound waves travel through the body and encounter
different tissues and organs, which have different acoustic properties.
• Reflection of sound waves: The sound waves encounter boundaries between different tissues
and organs and bounce back, creating echoes. The strength of the echoes depends on the
acoustic properties of the tissues and organs, such as density and stiffness.
• Reception of echoes: The transducer in the ultrasonography machine receives the echoes and
sends the information to a computer, which processes the data to create images.
• Image formation: The computer uses the information from the echoes to create images of the
internal organs and tissues of the body. The images are displayed on a screen, allowing the
operator to see the structure and movement of the internal organs and tissues.
Advantages of Ultrasonography
1. Non-invasive: Ultrasonography does not involve any incisions or injections, making it a safe
and convenient imaging method.
2. No ionizing radiation: Ultrasonography does not use ionizing radiation, making it a safer option
for patients, especially pregnant women and children.
3. Real-time imaging: Ultrasonography provides real-time images that can be used to monitor the
movement and function of internal organs and tissues in real-time.
4. Portable: Ultrasonography machines are portable and can be used in a variety of settings,
making it a valuable tool for emergency and rural medicine.
5. Cost-effective: Ultrasonography is a cost-effective imaging method that does not require any
special preparation or recovery time.
6. Versatile: Ultrasonography can be used to image a wide range of structures within the body,
including the organs of the abdomen, pelvis, and chest, as well as the uterus, fetus, and other
soft tissues.
Limitations of Ultrasonography
1. Limited depth: Ultrasonography has limited depth and is not as effective at imaging deep
structures or those obscured by bones or gas.
2. Operator dependence: The quality of the images produced by ultrasonography depends
heavily on the skills and experience of the operator.
3. Limited resolution: Ultrasonography has limited resolution compared to other imaging
methods, making it less effective at visualizing small structures or detecting small changes
in tissue.
4. Limitations in overweight patients: Ultrasonography may have limited usefulness in
overweight patients due to the difficulty in obtaining clear images through the layers of fat.
5. Limitations in detecting some types of cancer: Ultrasonography may not be as effective at
detecting certain types of cancer, such as pancreatic cancer, due to the lack of characteristic
signs on ultrasound images.
 SONARS
Stands for Sound Navigation and Ranging, is a technology that uses sound waves to detect and
locate underwater objects.
Uses of Sonars
1. Naval applications: Sonars are used by naval vessels to detect and locate other ships,
submarines, and underwater obstacles, allowing them to navigate safely and avoid potential
collisions.
2. Fishery: Sonars are used in the fishing industry to locate schools of fish and determine the
depth of the water, allowing fishermen to more efficiently target their catch.
3. Oceanography: Sonars are used in oceanography to study the physical and biological properties
of the ocean, including the structure of the ocean floor, the movement of currents, and the
distribution of marine life.
4. Environmental monitoring: Sonars are used to monitor the health of marine ecosystems, track
the migration patterns of whales and other marine mammals, and assess the impact of human
activities on the ocean environment.
• Sonar technology works by emitting a series of sound pulses and listening for the echoes that
bounce back from underwater objects.
• The time it takes for the echoes to return is used to calculate the distance to the objects, and the
frequency and pattern of the echoes are used to determine their size and shape.
Working Principle of Sonars is based on the reflection of sound waves.
1. Transmitter: A sonar system consists of a transmitter that produces and emits a series of sound
pulses into the water. These sound pulses are typically in the form of highfrequency, low-power
acoustic signals, known as "ping."
2. Propagation of sound waves: The sound pulses propagate through the water, traveling to the
target object and bouncing back as echoes. The speed of sound in water is slower than in air,
and it depends on the temperature, pressure, and salinity of the water.
3. Receiver: The sonar system also includes a receiver that listens for the returning echoes. The
receiver is typically placed far away from the transmitter to minimize interference from the
transmitted signals.
4. Calculation of range: The time it takes for the echoes to return to the receiver is used to
calculate the range to the target object. The range is simply the product of the speed of sound
in water and the time it takes for the echoes to return.
5. Determination of target properties: The frequency and pattern of the echoes are used to
determine the properties of the target object, such as its size, shape, and composition. For
example, a large, solid object will produce a strong, low-frequency echo, while a small, porous
object will produce a weaker, high-frequency echo.
6. Display of results: The results of the sonar measurement are typically displayed on a screen or
other output device, allowing the operator to visualize the target object and its location.
Advantages of Sonar Technology
1. Versatility: Sonar technology is versatile and can be used in a variety of applications, such as
underwater navigation, mapping, and imaging, as well as for military and scientific purposes.
2. Cost-effective: Compared to other underwater imaging technologies, sonar is relatively cost-
effective and affordable.
3. Non-invasive: Unlike other imaging technologies, such as diving and remote-operated vehicles,
sonar does not physically disturb the underwater environment, making it an ideal choice for
environmental monitoring and scientific research.
4. Real-time imaging: Sonar provides real-time imaging, allowing operators to quickly and easily
assess the underwater environment.
5. High resolution: Modern sonar systems have high-resolution capabilities, allowing for detailed
images of underwater objects and structures.
Limitations of Sonar Technology
1. Limited visibility: limited by the visibility of the water, which can be affected by factors such as
sediment, algae, and water temperature. This can make it difficult to obtain clear and accurate
images.
2. Interference: from other underwater sources, such as ships, submarines, and natural underwater
features, which can lead to false readings and reduced accuracy.
3. Short range: Sonar signals have a limited range, which can make it difficult to image larger
underwater structures or objects that are located far away from the sonar system.
4. Limited depth: The depth to which sonar can effectively penetrate is limited, making it unsuitable
for imaging objects or structures that are located at great depths
5. Acoustic noise: which can disturb marine life and harm marine ecosystems. This is particularly a
concern for high-power, military-grade sonar systems, which have the potential to cause serious
harm to marine life.
6. Complex technology: requiring specialized skills and equipment to operate and maintain. This
can limit its accessibility and increase the cost of implementation.
7. Inaccurate readings: due to factors such as reflection, refraction, and absorption of sound waves,
which can result in incorrect measurements and false readings.
 Photosynthesis
• Photosynthesis is the process by which
plants, algae, and some bacteria convert light
energy from the sun into chemical energy
stored in organic molecules.
• This process is critical for life on Earth, as it
provides the primary source of energy for all
living organisms.
The Process of Photosynthesis in Plants - the basic principle of converting light energy into usable
forms of energy is the same in both.
• In plants, photosynthesis takes place in the chloroplasts of the cells located in the leaves.
• The process starts with the absorption of light energy by pigments such as chlorophyll, which
then excites electrons.
• These excited electrons are used to power the transfer of carbon dioxide into organic molecules,
such as sugars and starches, through a series of chemical reactions.
• The end product of photosynthesis in plants is stored chemical energy in the form of organic
compounds.
• Light-dependent reactions and light-independent reactions (also known as the Calvin cycle) are
two interconnected processes that occur in the chloroplasts of plants and algae during
photosynthesis.
Light-Dependent Reactions: Light energy is absorbed by chlorophyll and other pigments in the
thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts.

Water molecules (H2O) are split through a process called photolysis, releasing electrons,
protons (H+ ), and oxygen (O2).
↓
The excited electrons from photolysis are captured by electron carriers, such as NADP+
(Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate) and converted to NADPH (Nicotinamide
Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate).
↓
Adenosine diphosphate (ADP) combines with inorganic phosphate (Pi) to form adenosine
triphosphate (ATP). This process is known as phosphorylation and is a fundamental step in
cellular energy metabolism.
↓
Oxygen molecules (O2) generated from the splitting of water are released as a byproduct into
the atmosphere.
Light-Independent Reactions (Calvin Cycle):
Carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere enters the stroma of the chloroplasts.
↓
Carbon fixation occurs and forms a unstable six-carbon compound
↓
The resulting unstable six-carbon compound quickly breaks down into two molecules of 3-
phosphoglycerate (PGA).
↓
ATP and NADPH, produced during the light-dependent reactions, provide energy and
electrons for the reduction of PGA to glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P).
↓
Some G3P molecules are used to produce glucose and other organic molecules.
↓
The remaining G3P molecules are recycled and used in subsequent cycles of the Calvin cycle.
↓
Glucose and other carbohydrates produced during the Calvin cycle can be stored for later use
or utilized in metabolic processes to meet the energy and growth needs of the plant.
Overall, the process of photosynthesis is a critical aspect of life on Earth and provides the primary
source of energy for all living organisms. While the specific details of the process may differ
between plants, algae, and some animals, the basic principle of converting light energy into usable
forms of energy remains the same.
Photovoltaic Cells / solar cells
• The connection between photosynthesis and photovoltaics lies in the conversion of light energy
into usable forms of energy.
• In photosynthesis, light energy from the sun is converted into chemical energy stored in organic
molecules, such as sugars and starches.
• In photovoltaics, light energy is converted into electrical energy.
• Both photosynthesis and photovoltaics use the same basic principle of converting light energy
into usable forms of energy, but the end products are different.
• In photosynthesis, the end product is stored chemical energy, while in photovoltaics, the end
product is electrical energy.
• Both processes also involve the use of specialized components and materials, such as chlorophyll
in photosynthesis and silicon in photovoltaics, to absorb and convert light energy into usable
forms of energy.
New technologies in photovoltaic cells include:
1. Perovskite solar cells: that use a crystalline material made of perovskite to convert light energy
into electrical energy. They are highly efficient and have the potential to be more affordable
than traditional silicon-based photovoltaic cells.
2. Thin-film photovoltaic cells: that uses a thin layer of material, such as silicon or cadmium
telluride, to convert light energy into electrical energy. They are lighter and more flexible than
traditional silicon based photovoltaic cells and are ideal for use in portable and flexible solar
panels.
3. Concentrator photovoltaic cells: that uses a lens or mirror to concentrate sunlight onto a small
area, increasing the amount of light energy that can be captured and converted into electrical
energy.
4. Multi-junction photovoltaic cells: that uses multiple layers of different materials, each
optimized for different wavelengths of light, to convert light energy into electrical energy. They
are highly efficient and ideal for use in concentrated solar power systems.
These are just a few examples of the new technologies in photovoltaic cells. The field of
photovoltaics is constantly evolving, and there are many ongoing efforts to develop new and
improved photovoltaic cell designs and materials that are more efficient, affordable, and
environmentally friendly.
Bionic Leaf
A bionic leaf is a system that uses artificial photosynthesis to convert sunlight into usable forms of
energy, such as hydrogen or other biofuels.
• The bionic leaf is designed to mimic the process of photosynthesis in plants, where light energy
is used to split water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen, and the hydrogen can then be used as
a source of energy.
• The bionic leaf consists of a photovoltaic cell that captures sunlight and converts it into electrical
energy, and a catalyst, such as a bacteria, that uses the electrical energy to split water molecules
into hydrogen and oxygen.
• The hydrogen produced by the bionic leaf can then be stored and used as a source of energy for
a variety of applications, such as powering vehicles or generating electricity.
• The bionic leaf has the potential to be a highly sustainable and environmentally friendly energy
source, as it uses renewable resources, such as sunlight and water, to produce energy.
• Additionally, the bionic leaf can be used in remote locations where there is limited access to
electricity, and it can help to reduce our reliance on fossil fuels and mitigate the effects of
climate change.
Components of Bionic Leaf
1. Photosynthetic Organism: The bionic leaf utilizes a photosynthetic organism, such as a
cyanobacterium or a genetically modified plant, as the primary component. This organism
contains chlorophyll or other light-absorbing pigments that capture solar energy and initiate the
photosynthetic process.
2. Light Harvesting System: which can be artificial or natural, to efficiently capture sunlight. In
some designs, light-absorbing dyes or semiconductor materials are incorporated to enhance
light absorption and conversion efficiency.
3. Catalysts: such as enzymes (Examples: Hydrogenase, Nitrogenase, etc.) or synthetic catalysts
(Example: Rubisco (Ribulose-1,5- bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase)), to facilitate the
chemical reactions involved in photosynthesis. These catalysts play a crucial role in splitting
water molecules, generating electrons, and catalyzing the conversion of carbon dioxide into
fuels or other chemical compounds.
4. Electron Transfer Pathway: It allows the generated electrons from water splitting to be
efficiently transported to the catalysts involved in carbon dioxide reduction or other chemical
reactions. This pathway ensures the flow of electrons necessary for fuel production or other
desired chemical transformations.
5. Carbon Dioxide Source: To sustain the photosynthetic process, a bionic leaf requires a source of
carbon dioxide. This can be obtained from various sources, including ambient air, industrial
emissions, or concentrated carbon dioxide solutions.
6. Energy Storage or Conversion System: The bionic leaf includes an energy storage or conversion
system to capture and store the chemical energy produced during photosynthesis. This can
involve the production of hydrogen gas, liquid fuels, or other energy-rich compounds that can
be stored and used as needed.
7. Control and Monitoring System: To optimize performance and ensure efficient operation, a
bionic leaf typically incorporates a control and monitoring system. This system monitors various
parameters such as light intensity, temperature, pH, and carbon dioxide levels, and allows for
adjustments and optimization of the overall process.
Working principle The working principle of a bionic leaf is based on artificial photosynthesis, which aims to mimic the process of
photosynthesis in plants.
• The bionic leaf typically consists of a photovoltaic cell that captures sunlight and converts it into electrical energy, and a
catalyst, such as a bacterium, that uses the electrical energy to split water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen.
• The photovoltaic cell is used to convert sunlight into electrical energy, which is then passed to the catalyst.
• The catalyst, in turn, uses the electrical energy to power the process of water splitting, where water molecules are
separated into hydrogen and oxygen.
• This process is facilitated by the presence of enzymes or other catalysts that act as a bridge between the electrical energy
and the water splitting reaction.
• The hydrogen produced by the bionic leaf can then be stored and used as a source of energy for a variety of applications,
such as powering vehicles or generating electricity.
• Additionally, the oxygen produced by the bionic leaf can be released into the atmosphere, where it can help to mitigate the
effects of climate change by reducing the levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide.
A flow chart of the working principle of bionic leaf is given below:
Sunlight is captured and directed to the bionic leaf
↓
The bionic leaf contains a catalyst (typically a special type of bacteria or an artificial catalyst) and a water-splitting enzyme.
↓
Sunlight energy is used to split water molecules (H2O) into hydrogen ions (H+ ) and oxygen (O2) through a process called
photolysis.
↓
The hydrogen ions (H+ ) generated from water splitting combine with electrons from an external source (e.g., a wire) to form
hydrogen gas (H2).
↓
The oxygen gas (O2) produced during water splitting is released into the atmosphere.
↓
The generated hydrogen gas (H2) can be collected and stored for later use as a clean and renewable energy source.
↓
The bionic leaf also absorbs carbon dioxide (CO2) from the air or a supplied source.
↓
The absorbed carbon dioxide (CO2) is converted into carbon-based compounds, such as formic acid or methane, through a
reduction reaction.
↓
The carbon-based compounds can be used as a fuel or converted into other useful chemicals.
↓
The bionic leaf operates in a closed-loop system, where the produced oxygen (O2) during water splitting is reused by the
catalyst in subsequent cycles.
Applications of Bionic Leaf Technology
1. Renewable Energy Production: Bionic leaf systems can harness solar energy and convert it into
chemical energy in the form of hydrogen gas or other carbon-based fuels. These fuels can be used as
clean energy sources for various applications, including transportation, electricity generation, and
heating.
2. Carbon Dioxide Reduction: By capturing and utilizing carbon dioxide as a feedstock, bionic leaf
systems can potentially help reduce greenhouse gas emissions and combat climate change. This
application holds significant potential for carbon capture and utilization (CCU) strategies.
3. Sustainable Chemical Production: By utilizing carbon dioxide and renewable energy, these systems
can produce a wide range of valuable chemicals, such as fertilizers, plastics, and pharmaceuticals.
4. Agriculture and Food Production: By utilizing sunlight and carbon dioxide, bionic leaf systems can
generate oxygen and energy-rich compounds that can enhance plant growth and improve crop
yields.
5. Remote and Off-Grid Areas: By harnessing solar energy and producing clean fuels, these systems can
offer sustainable power sources for communities without access to conventional energy
infrastructure, enabling them to meet their energy needs and improve their quality of life.
6. Environmental Remediation: By utilizing the energy generated from sunlight, bionic leaf systems can
power processes that remove pollutants or contaminants from air, water, or soil, contributing to the
restoration and preservation of ecosystems.
Bird Flying and aircraft
• Birds fly by flapping their wings and using their body weight and the movement of the air to stay
aloft.
• They navigate using a combination of visual cues, the Earth's magnetic field, and celestial
navigation.
• Aircraft, on the other hand, use engines to generate thrust and lift from the wings to stay in the air.
• They navigate using a combination of instruments and systems, including GPS (Global Positioning
System), which uses satellite signals to determine the aircraft's position and help it navigate.
• Birds flying influenced the invention of aircraft in that early aviation pioneers, such as the Wright
brothers, observed and studied the flight of birds to develop their flying machines.
• They noted how birds used their wings and body to achieve lift and control their flight, and used
this knowledge to design and improve aircraft.
• The development of GPS technology was not directly influenced by birds, but rather by the need
for accurate and reliable navigation systems for various purposes, including aviation.
• GPS uses a network of satellites to provide location and time information, which is used by aircraft
for navigation, communication, and safety purposes
The science behind the birds flies using its wings and holding their body weight in air
The ability of birds to fly and support their body weight in the air is a result of various anatomical
and physiological adaptations.
1. Wing Shape: Birds have specialized wings with a unique shape that generates lift. The wings are
curved on the upper surface and flatter on the bottom, creating a pressure difference known as
Bernoulli's principle. This pressure difference generates lift, allowing birds to stay airborne.
2. Wing Muscles: Birds have strong flight muscles attached to their wings, allowing them to flap
their wings vigorously. The upstroke and downstroke motion of the wings generates thrust,
propelling the bird forward through the air.
3. Hollow Bones: Birds have lightweight bones that are hollow and filled with air sacs, reducing
their overall weight. This makes it easier for them to stay aloft.
4. Feathers: Feathers play a crucial role in flight. They provide both lift and control. The primary
feathers at the tips of the wings help generate lift, while the tail feathers assist in maneuvering
and stabilizing during flight.
5. Respiratory System: Birds have a unique respiratory system that allows for efficient oxygen
exchange. Air flows unidirectionally through their lungs, as well as through a system of air sacs
located throughout their body. This constant supply of oxygen fuels their high metabolic
demands during flight.
6. Efficient Circulatory System: Birds have a highly efficient circulatory system that delivers oxygen-
rich blood to their muscles and organs. Their heart rate increases during flight, ensuring a
steady supply of oxygen to meet the demands of their active muscles.
7. Flight Control: Birds have remarkable coordination and control over their flight. They can adjust
the angle and shape of their wings, control their speed and direction, and perform intricate
aerial maneuvers using their tail, wings, and body movements.
It's important to note that bird flight is a complex process influenced by several factors, including
aerodynamics, muscle strength, metabolic efficiency, and specialized adaptations.
The science behind bird flight continues to be an area of study and fascination for researchers and
aviation engineers alike
GPS Technology GPS (Global Positioning System) is a technology that uses a network of
satellites to provide location and time information to users.
• The technology works by measuring the time it takes for signals to travel from satellites to a
receiver on the ground or in a vehicle, and using this information to calculate the user's position.
Key components of GPS technology:
• Satellites: consists of 24-32 satellites orbiting the Earth. These satellites continuously broadcast
signals containing information about their location, time, and status.
• Receivers: which are typically integrated into devices such as smartphones, navigation systems,
and aircraft, receive signals from GPS satellites and use the information to calculate the user's
position.
• Control segment: The control segment consists of ground-based monitoring stations that track
the GPS satellites, check the accuracy of their signals, and make adjustments as needed.
• User segment: The user segment consists of the GPS receivers used by individuals and
organizations to obtain location and time information.
Importance of GPS Technology in Aircrafts
1. Positioning and Navigation: GPS helps aircraft accurately determine their position and follow
precise routes. Signals from satellites are received by GPS receivers onboard, allowing the system to
calculate the aircraft's position.
2. Flight Planning: GPS assists pilots and planners in creating optimal flight plans, considering
waypoints, altitudes, and current information on navigation aids, weather, and airspace restrictions.
3. Approach and Landing: GPS-based navigation systems provide precise guidance during approach
and landing, even in low visibility. This enhances safety and reduces reliance on ground-based
navigation aids.
4. Air Traffic Management: GPS is integrated into air traffic management systems, improving airspace
efficiency, reducing congestion, optimizing routing, and enhancing aircraft tracking and situational
awareness for controllers.
5. Collision Avoidance: GPS contributes to collision avoidance systems like TCAS and ADS-B. These
systems use GPS data to track nearby aircraft, provide alerts, and ensure safe separation.
6. Flight Data Recording: GPS data is often recorded by flight data recording systems, aiding post-flight
analysis, accident investigation, and overall flight safety improvements.
GPS technology has revolutionized aircraft navigation and has become an integral part of modern
aviation. It provides accurate positioning, enhances safety, improves operational efficiency, and
contributes to the overall advancement of the aviation industry.
Comparing Birds and Aircrafts with GPS Technology for Navigation Table:
Criteria Aircrafts Birds
Mechanism GPS technology in aircraft relies Birds use a combination of visual cues, magnetic
on signals received from fields, landmarks, and celestial navigation to
satellites to determine precise navigate and orient themselves during flight.
position, velocity, and time.

Accuracy GPS technology provides highly birds have remarkable navigational abilities but
accurate position information may not possess the same level of accuracy as
with a margin of error typically GPS.
within a few meters. However, birds can adjust their flight path based
on real-time environmental cues, which allows
for more dynamic and adaptable navigation.

Sensory Input GPS technology relies solely on Birds integrate various sensory inputs for
receiving satellite signals. navigation.
They can perceive and interpret visual cues, such
as landmarks and the position of the sun or stars,
and they may also have sensitivity to Earth's
magnetic field, enabling them to navigate across
vast distances.
Adaptability GPS technology in aircraft Birds, on the other hand, demonstrate
provides consistent and remarkable adaptability in their navigation
reliable navigation regardless abilities.
of the environmental They can adjust their flight paths based on
conditions or time of day. changing weather conditions, wind patterns,
and other factors, which allows for efficient
long-distance migration and navigation
through complex landscapes.

Evolutionary Aspect PS technology is a Birds, however, have evolved over millions of

humanmade innovation years, developing specialized neural and
designed to enhance physiological adaptations that enable them
navigation and safety in to navigate and fly efficiently in diverse
aircraft. habitats.
Aircraft Technology Aircraft technology has advanced significantly since the first powered flight by
the Wright brothers in 1903.
• Aerodynamics: Modern aircraft are designed to be more aerodynamic, with wing shapes
optimized for lift and efficiency. Advanced materials and manufacturing techniques have also
been developed to reduce weight and improve durability.
• Jet engines: Jet engines, which use the principles of Newton's third law of motion to produce
thrust, have replaced propeller engines in most modern aircraft. These engines are more
powerful, fuel-efficient, and reliable.
• Avionics: Avionics, or aviation electronics, have advanced significantly with the development of
digital technology. Flight instruments, navigation systems, and communication systems have
become more precise, reliable, and sophisticated.
• Safety systems: Aircraft safety systems have been developed to reduce the risk of accidents and
improve passenger safety. These include systems for collision avoidance, weather detection, and
emergency response.
• Automation: has increased significantly in recent years, with the development of advanced
autopilot systems and computerized flight control systems. This technology has made flying safer
and more efficient, but has also raised concerns about pilot training and the potential for
overreliance on automation.
Bio Mimicking Birds Fly for Aircraft Technology Biomimicry, or the practice of using designs and
processes found in nature to solve human problems, has led to the development of various
technologies inspired by birds' flight.
1. Wing design: The shape of bird wings has inspired the design of aircraft wings, which have
evolved to be more aerodynamic and fuel-efficient as a result. The study of bird flight has also
led to the development of winglets, small structures at the tip of wings that reduce drag and
increase lift.
2. Flapping-wing drones: Researchers have developed drones that use flapping wings to fly,
mimicking the way birds and insects fly. These drones can be used for various applications, such
as monitoring crops and wildlife, inspecting buildings and infrastructure, and search and rescue
operations.
3. Soaring algorithms: Soaring refers to the flight technique used by birds and certain aircraft to
stay aloft and travel long distances with minimal energy expenditure. It involves utilizing rising
air currents, such as thermals, ridge lift, wind shear, or atmospheric waves, to gain altitude and
maintain flight. Birds use thermals, or columns of rising warm air, to gain altitude and soar.
Researchers have developed algorithms inspired by bird flight to help gliders and other aircraft
use thermals more efficiently, leading to longer and more sustainable flights.
4. Landing gear: The legs and feet of birds have inspired the design of landing gear for aircraft,
with shock-absorbing and retractable structures that help absorb impact upon landing.
The future of transportation through the air
Electric Vertical Takeoff and Landing (eVTOL) Aircraft: These are
electric-powered aircraft that can take off and land vertically,
similar to helicopters. They are being designed for urban air
mobility and short-distance transportation, offering a more
efficient and environmentally friendly alternative to traditional
helicopters.
Autonomous Flying Vehicles: Autonomous
drones and flying taxis are being developed for
various applications, including transportation of
people and goods. These vehicles would operate
without a pilot and rely on advanced sensors,
artificial intelligence, and automation to navigate
safely.
High-Speed Air Travel: Supersonic and hypersonic
aircraft are being explored to revolutionize long-
distance travel. These aircraft would travel at
extremely high speeds, significantly reducing
travel times and opening up new possibilities for
global connectivity.
Personal Air Vehicles (PAVs):
PAVs are compact flying vehicles designed for individual use.
They could potentially serve as a convenient mode of
transportation for short distance travel within cities, similar
to personal cars but in the air.

Hyperloop Transportation: While not strictly an

air-based mode of transportation, the Hyperloop
concept involves high-speed capsules traveling
through low-pressure tubes, offering near-
supersonic speeds. This mode of transportation
could connect distant cities and regions in a fast,
energy-efficient manner.
 Lotus Leaf Effect:
• The ability of lotus leaves to repel water and self-clean
through their unique surface structure.
• This effect has inspired the development of super
hydrophobic and self-cleaning surfaces, which have a wide
range of applications in various industries.
• The lotus leaf surface has a microscale and nanoscale
structure that consists of numerous small bumps and wax-
coated hairs.
• This structure creates a high contact angle between the water
droplets and the surface, causing the droplets to roll off and
carry away any dirt or debris.
• This self-cleaning property is due to the lotus leaf's ability to
repel water and resist adhesion.
Super hydrophobic and self-cleaning surfaces have applications in industries such as aerospace,
automotive, building materials, and medical devices.
For example, self-cleaning coatings can be used on the exterior of buildings to reduce the need for
cleaning and maintenance, while super hydrophobic coatings can be used to prevent icing on
aircraft wings.
Super Hydrophobic Effect
Principle the ability of certain surfaces to repel water and
resist wetting. Super hydrophobic surfaces are
characterized by a high contact angle between water
droplets and the surface, typically over 150 degrees, and
a low contact angle hysteresis, meaning that the droplets
roll off the surface with ease.
The super hydrophobic effect is achieved through the use
of various techniques. These techniques create a surface
structure that traps air between the surface and the water
droplets, reducing the contact area between them and
making it more difficult for the droplets to wet the surface.
Materials and Examples Super hydrophobic surfaces are created by modifying the surface
chemistry and structure of materials to achieve extremely high water repellency.
1. Fluoropolymers: Fluoropolymer-based coatings are widely used for super hydrophobic surfaces
due to their low surface energy and water-repellent properties.
Examples include polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) and fluorinated ethylene propylene (FEP) coatings.
2. Silica-based Nanoparticles: Silica nanoparticles can be functionalized and applied to surfaces to
create super hydrophobicity. These nanoparticles create a rough surface structure that traps air
pockets, preventing water from wetting the surface. Additionally, the surface can be modified
with hydrophobic molecules.
Examples include silica nanoparticles coated with hydrophobic agents like alkyl silanes.
3. Carbon-based Materials: Carbon nanotubes (CNTs), graphene, and carbon nanofibers are used
to create super hydrophobic surfaces. These materials can be aligned or randomly distributed
to form a rough surface with hydrophobic properties. The combination of their unique
structures and hydrophobic coatings contributes to water repellency
4. Metal-based Materials: Various metals and metal oxides can be used to create super
hydrophobic surfaces. One approach involves creating micro/nanostructured surfaces using
etching techniques, such as chemical etching or electrochemical etching, on metals like
aluminum, copper, or stainless steel. These structures, combined with appropriate surface
treatments, enhance water repellency.
5. Polymer-based Materials: Some polymers, when processed and structured appropriately, can
exhibit super hydrophobic properties.
For example, polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) can be modified and structured to create rough
surfaces with low surface energy, resulting in super hydrophobic behavior.
6. Natural Materials: Certain natural materials, such as lotus leaves and butterfly wings, have
inherently super hydrophobic properties. Researchers have studied the surface structures and
chemical composition of these natural surfaces to replicate them artificially. Mimicking the
hierarchical structures and utilizing hydrophobic coatings can create super hydrophobic
surfaces.
7. Hybrid Materials: Combinations of different materials are often used to create super
hydrophobic surfaces. For instance, hybrid coatings can be formed by combining nanoparticles,
polymers, and other materials to achieve synergistic effects and optimize super hydrophobic
properties.
Techniques used to prepare super hydrophobic surfaces
1. Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD): CVD involves the deposition of thin films onto a
substrate through chemical reactions in the vapor phase. By using appropriate precursors,
surface coatings with low surface energy can be achieved, resulting in super hydrophobicity.
2. Sol-Gel Method: The sol-gel process involves the synthesis of inorganic materials from a
solution (sol) that undergoes a gelation process to form a solid network. By controlling the
composition and structure of the sol-gel materials, super hydrophobic coatings can be
created on various substrates.
3. Electrochemical Methods: Electrochemical techniques like anodization and electroplating
can be employed to create super hydrophobic surfaces. Anodization involves the controlled
oxidation of metals, such as aluminum, to form a porous oxide layer with a rough surface.
Electroplating can be used to deposit metals or alloys with desired surface properties.
4. Plasma Treatment: Plasma treatment involves exposing the material surface to lowpressure
plasma, which can modify the surface chemistry and morphology. Plasma etching,
deposition, or functionalization techniques can be used to create superhydrophobic
surfaces with specific characteristics.
5. Micro/Nano structuring Techniques: Various fabrication methods can be used to create
micro- and nanostructures on surfaces, which contribute to super hydrophobicity. Examples
include:
• Photolithography: Photolithography uses light-sensitive materials (photoresists) to pattern
surfaces at the microscale or nanoscale. These patterns can be transferred onto the
substrate to create controlled roughness. o Laser Ablation: Laser ablation involves using a
laser to remove or modify material on the surface, creating micro- or nanoscale features.
This technique can generate rough structures and surface textures that enhance super
hydrophobic properties
• Nanosphere Lithography: Nanosphere lithography utilizes self-assembled monolayers of
closely packed nanospheres as a mask to create ordered nanoscale patterns on the
substrate. These patterns can be transferred into the substrate material to achieve super
hydrophobicity.
• Electrospinning: Electrospinning involves using an electric field to draw a polymer solution
into fine fibers. These fibers can be collected onto a substrate, creating a porous and rough
surface structure suitable for super hydrophobic applications
6. Chemical Modification: Surface functionalization with hydrophobic molecules, such as alkyl
silanes (e.g., octadecyl trichlorosilane, OTS), can be employed to reduce the surface energy and
create super hydrophobicity. This technique involves depositing a self assembled monolayer
(SAM) of the hydrophobic molecules onto the substrate.
These are just a few examples of the techniques used to prepare super hydrophobic surfaces. Each
technique has its advantages, and the choice depends on the specific material, substrate, and
desired surface characteristics. Often, a combination of techniques is used to achieve optimal super
hydrophobic properties.
Engineering Applications of Super Hydrophobic Surfaces
Super hydrophobic surfaces have potential applications in the electronics, automobile, and
aerospace industries, offering several benefits in these sectors.
1. Electronics Industry:
1. Waterproofing Electronics: Super hydrophobic coatings can protect electronic components
from water damage. By applying super hydrophobic coatings on circuit boards, connectors,
and other sensitive electronic parts, water ingress can be minimized, improving the
reliability and durability of electronic devices.
2. Moisture Resistance: Electronic devices exposed to humid environments or moisture prone
conditions can benefit from super hydrophobic coatings. These coatings prevent moisture
from reaching critical electronic components, reducing the risk of short circuits, corrosion,
and malfunction.
3. Self-Cleaning Displays: Super hydrophobic coatings applied to displays and touch screens
repel water, oils, and fingerprints, making them easier to clean and maintain. This improves
the visibility and functionality of electronic displays, especially in outdoor or high-touch
applications.
2. Automobile Industry:
1. Anti-Fogging Windows and Mirrors: Super hydrophobic
coatings can be used on automobile windows and
mirrors to prevent fogging or condensation formation.
The water-repellent property helps maintain clear
visibility, enhancing driver safety and comfort in humid
or cold weather conditions.
2. Self-Cleaning Surfaces: Applying super hydrophobic
coatings to the exterior surfaces of vehicles can facilitate
self-cleaning by repelling water, dirt, and contaminants.
This reduces the need for frequent washing and
maintenance, keeping the vehicle cleaner and improving
its appearance.
3. Fuel Efficiency: Super hydrophobic coatings can reduce
drag and frictional resistance on vehicle surfaces,
leading to improved aerodynamics and fuel efficiency.
By minimizing water adhesion, the coatings help reduce
the accumulation of water droplets on the vehicle's
exterior, decreasing drag and optimizing performance.
3. Aerospace Industry:
1. Anti-Icing and Deicing: Super hydrophobic coatings
applied to aircraft surfaces can prevent ice formation or
facilitate ice removal. This is particularly important for
critical areas such as wings, engine components, and
sensors, helping to ensure safe operations and reducing
the risk of ice-related incidents.
2. Drag Reduction: Super hydrophobic coatings on aircraft
surfaces can minimize frictional drag during flight,
leading to improved fuel efficiency and reduced
emissions. The water-repellent property helps maintain a
smooth airflow over the surface, optimizing aerodynamic
performance.
3. Corrosion Resistance: Super hydrophobic coatings can
protect aerospace components from corrosion caused by
exposure to moisture, rain, or harsh environments. By
repelling water and reducing surface contact with
corrosive agents, these coatings help preserve the
structural integrity and lifespan of aerospace equipment.
Self-Cleaning Surfaces
These surfaces are typically super hydrophobic and have a high contact angle with water, which
causes water droplets to bead up and roll off the surface, carrying away any dirt or debris.
Principle of Self Cleaning Surfaces two main mechanisms: the reduction of surface energy and the
modification of surface texture.
These mechanisms work together to minimize the adhesion of dirt, water, and other contaminants,
enabling the self-cleaning effect.
1. Low Surface Energy: Self-cleaning surfaces often have low surface energy, which means they
have a reduced affinity for liquid and solid particles. Materials with low surface energy repel
water, oils, and other substances, preventing them from adhering to the surface. This property is
typically achieved through the application of hydrophobic or oleophobic coatings, such as
fluoropolymers or other low-surface-energy materials.
2. Lotus Effect:. It is a classic example of self-cleaning surfaces. Lotus leaves have a unique
micro/nanostructured surface covered with hydrophobic wax crystals. When water droplets
come into contact with the leaf surface, they form near-perfect spheres and roll off, collecting
dirt and contaminants along the way. This is due to the combination of the surface's low surface
energy and the presence of micro/nanostructures, which reduce the contact area and enable
easy droplet mobility
3. Micro/Nanostructured Surfaces: Surface texture plays a crucial role in self-cleaning surfaces.
Microscopic or nanoscopic structures can be engineered or naturally occurring on a surface to
create a roughness that limits the contact between the surface and contaminants. These
structures can trap air pockets, causing liquids to form droplets with reduced contact area,
minimizing adhesion. The trapped air can act as a lubricant, aiding in the easy removal of
particles.
4. External Factors: While the surface properties contribute to self-cleaning, external factors like
water, wind, or light often play a role in activating the self-cleaning process. For example, the
presence of water, either through rainfall or manual washing, can help remove loosely adhered
particles from the surface. Sunlight or UV radiation can activate photocatalytic reactions on
certain surfaces, breaking down organic matter and enhancing self-cleaning capabilities. By
combining low surface energy, micro/nanostructured surfaces, and external factors, self-cleaning
surfaces minimize the adhesion and retention of contaminants, making them easier to clean or
enabling them to self-clean when exposed to appropriate conditions
Materials and examples of self cleaning surfaces
1. Photocatalytic Coatings: Photocatalytic materials, such as titanium dioxide (TiO2), can be used
as coatings on surfaces to create self-cleaning properties. When exposed to ultraviolet (UV)
light, photocatalytic surfaces generate reactive oxygen species that break down organic matter,
resulting in the decomposition of dirt and pollutants.
2. Super hydrophobic Coatings: Super hydrophobic surfaces exhibit extremely high water
repellency, which helps in the self-cleaning process. When water comes into contact with these
surfaces, it forms spherical droplets that easily roll off, carrying away dirt and contaminants.
Examples of super hydrophobic coatings include those made from fluoropolymers,
nanostructured surfaces, or combinations of hydrophobic materials.
3. Self-Cleaning Glass: Self-cleaning glass incorporates a thin layer of titanium dioxide (TiO2) or
other photocatalytic materials on the surface. When exposed to UV light, the photocatalytic
reaction breaks down organic matter, while the hydrophilic nature of the surface allows water
to spread and wash away the debris, resulting in a self-cleaning effect.
4. Oleophobic Coatings: Oleophobic surfaces repel oil and grease, making them resistant to stains
and easier to clean. These coatings are typically made from fluorinated materials that have low
surface energy, preventing oil or oily substances from adhering to the surface.
5. Micro/Nanostructured Surfaces: Surfaces with micro- or nanostructures can exhibit self-
cleaning properties due to their ability to reduce contact area and enhance surface roughness.
The surface structures can trap air or create a lotus leaf-like effect, preventing the adhesion of
dirt and facilitating self-cleaning when exposed to water or airflow.
6. Self-Cleaning Fabrics: Fabrics treated with hydrophobic or oleophobic coatings can repel liquids,
stains, and dirt, making them easier to clean. These coatings can be applied to textiles used in
clothing, upholstery, or outdoor equipment, reducing the need for frequent washing and
maintenance.
Applications of self cleaning surfaces and coatings
1. Architecture and Building Materials: Self-cleaning surfaces find applications in architectural
structures and building materials, such as self-cleaning glass for windows and facades. These
surfaces repel dirt, dust, and pollutants, reducing the need for frequent cleaning and
maintenance.
2. Solar Panels: Self-cleaning coatings on solar panels prevent the accumulation of dust and dirt
on the surface, ensuring optimal energy efficiency. By repelling contaminants, self-cleaning
surfaces help maintain the transparency and effectiveness of solar panels.
3. Automotive Industry: Self-cleaning surfaces can be applied to vehicle exteriors, including car
windows and windshields. These surfaces repel water, oil, and dirt, improving visibility and
reducing the need for frequent cleaning.
4. Electronics: Self-cleaning coatings can be used on electronic displays, touchscreens, and optical
lenses. These surfaces resist fingerprints, oils, and smudges, ensuring clear visibility and
enhancing device performance.
5. Textiles: Self-cleaning coatings can be applied to fabrics used in outdoor clothing, upholstery,
and carpets. These coatings repel liquids, stains, and dirt, making the textiles easier to clean
and maintain.
6. Medical Equipment: Self-cleaning surfaces can be utilized in medical equipment, such as
hospital furniture, beds, and surfaces prone to contamination. These surfaces minimize the
adhesion of microorganisms, reducing the risk of cross-contamination and improving hygiene.
7. Kitchen and Bathroom Surfaces: Self-cleaning surfaces can be employed in kitchen
countertops, sinks, and bathroom fixtures to repel water, oils, and stains. This helps keep the
surfaces clean and reduces the effort required for cleaning and maintenance.
8. Outdoor Signage and Billboards: Self-cleaning coatings on outdoor signage and billboards
prevent the accumulation of dirt, grime, and pollutants. This helps maintain the visibility and
effectiveness of advertisements, reducing the need for manual cleaning.
9. Air Conditioning and Ventilation Systems: Self-cleaning coatings can be applied to air
conditioning and ventilation system components, such as filters and ducts. These surfaces repel
dust and particles, improving air quality and reducing the need for frequent cleaning or filter
replacements.
10. Food and Beverage Industry: Self-cleaning surfaces can be used in food processing equipment
and containers to prevent the adhesion of food residues, oils, and contaminants. This enhances
food safety and facilitates easier cleaning and sanitation.
 Plant Burrs and Velcro
• Plant burrs, such as those found on burdock, inspired the invention of Velcro, a popular hook-
and-loop fastening system.
• The burrs have small hooks that can latch onto clothing, fur, or feathers, allowing them to
disperse their seeds over a wider area.
• Velcro was invented by Swiss engineer George De Mestral in 1941, after he became fascinated
by the way burrs clung to his clothes and his dog's fur during a walk.
• He examined the burrs under a microscope and found that they had small hooks that could latch
onto loops in fabric.
• De Mestral spent years experimenting with different materials before finally developing Velcro,
which consists of two strips of nylon fabric, one with tiny hooks and the other with small loops.
• When pressed together, the hooks latch onto the loops, creating a strong bond that can be easily
detached by pulling the two strips apart.
• The name "Velcro" is actually a combination of the words "velvet" and "crochet," as the fabric
strips resemble velvet and are hooked together like crochet.
• Velcro has since become a popular alternative to traditional fasteners, such as buttons and
zippers, due to its ease of use and versatility.
Materials Used in Velcro Technology
Velcro technology uses two main materials: nylon and polyester.
1. The nylon is extruded to create tiny hooks that are then cut and shaped into the familiar hook
shape. These hooks are designed to latch onto the loop side of the Velcro.
2. The loop side of Velcro is made of polyester. Polyester is a synthetic fabric that is strong and
durable. The polyester is woven into a fabric that has many tiny loops. When the loops are
pressed against the hook side of the Velcro, the hooks latch onto the loops, creating a secure
attachment In addition to nylon and polyester, the adhesive used to attach the Velcro to
surfaces can also vary.
3. Some types of Velcro use a pressure-sensitive adhesive that can be easily removed without
leaving a residue, while others use a stronger adhesive that creates a more permanent
bond.
Engineering Applications of Velcro Technology
1. Clothing and footwear: for closures and adjustable straps. It can be easily opened and closed,
making it convenient for users with limited dexterity or mobility.
2. Medical devices: such as braces, splints, and compression garments for its adjustable and secure
fastening capabilities.
3. Aerospace equipment: such as satellites and spacecraft, to secure components in place and
prevent them from vibrating or shifting during launch or flight.
4. Automotive industry: for a range of applications, such as securing carpets and headliners, and
attaching door panels and seat cushions.
5. Packaging industry: for resealable closures on bags, pouches, and other types of packaging.
6. Sports equipment: such as helmets and gloves, for its ability to provide a secure and adjustable
fit.
 Shark Skin and Friction Reducing Swim Suits
• Denticles on shark skin are like tiny bumps or ridges.
• They disrupt the flow of water around the shark's body, making it smoother and reducing
turbulence.
• This disruption reduces the resistance the shark experiences as it swim, allowing it to move
faster and with less effort.
• Turbulence in Water is when a fluid, like water or air, becomes chaotic and unpredictable.
• Instead of flowing smoothly, it swirls and forms irregular patterns.
• This turbulence creates resistance or drag, which makes it harder for things to move through the
fluid.
• In swimming, reducing turbulence is important because it helps to minimize resistance, allowing
swimmers to move more easily and efficiently through the water.
• Reducing Drag When a shark swims through the water, the water normally flows smoothly over
its body.
• However, the denticles on the shark's skin disrupt this smooth flow.
• Frictionless Swim Suits,
which are designed to improve the performance of swimmers by reducing drag in the
water.
• Friction-reducing swim suits use a similar structure to that of shark skin to reduce drag and
improve swimmer performance.
• These suits are made from high-tech materials that mimic the properties of shark skin, such as
the shape and size of the denticles.
The materials used to create friction-reducing swim suits
1. Polyurethane: A type of polymer that is commonly used in the production of swim suits, as it is
durable and can be molded into a variety of shapes.
2. Lycra/Spandex: Lycra and spandex are made from the same synthetic fiber, which is technically
called elastane. Elastane fibers are typically composed of a polymer called polyurethane which
is then blended with other fibers like nylon, polyester, or cotton) that is known for its stretch
and flexibility.
3. High-tech fabrics: A range of high-tech fabrics have been developed specifically for use in swim
suits. These fabrics are designed to be lightweight, water-repellent, and hydrodynamic, and
often incorporate materials such as silicone or Teflon to reduce drag.
Examples
4. Speedo Fastskin: This swim suit was designed based on the structure of shark skin and is made
from a high-tech fabric that incorporates a range of materials to reduce drag and turbulence in
the water.
5. Arena Powerskin Carbon Ultra: the Arena Powerskin Carbon Ultra is made from a combination
of polyurethane and high-tech fabrics to provide a hydrodynamic and form-fitting design.
6. TYR Venzo: that incorporates a unique surface structure inspired by shark skin, as well as other
advanced materials to improve swimmer performance.
 Kingfisher Beak and Bullet Train
The kingfisher beak is an excellent example of nature's design for efficient diving and fishing.
• Its unique shape and structure enable the kingfisher to minimize the impact of water resistance
and achieve a successful dive.
The Physics behind the Kingfisher
Beak Streamlining: The beak of a kingfisher is long, slender, and
sharply pointed, which helps reduce drag or air resistance as the bird
dives into the water.
• The streamlined shape allows the kingfisher to smoothly cut
through the air and minimize the energy required for the dive.
Surface Tension: When the kingfisher hits the water, it encounters
the resistance caused by surface tension. Surface tension is the
cohesive force between water molecules that creates a "skin" on the
water's surface.
• The sharp beak of the kingfisher helps to pierce through the
water's surface, breaking the surface tension and reducing the
force required to enter the water.
Minimizing Splash: As the kingfisher dives, it needs to enter the
water with minimal disturbance to avoid scaring away the fish it
intends to catch.
• The beak's narrow and pointed design helps create a smooth
entry by minimizing the disturbance of the water surface, allowing
the kingfisher to enter silently and effectively.
Technological Importance The use of the kingfisher beak as a design inspiration for the front of the
bullet train is an example of how nature-inspired engineering can lead to innovative solutions that
improve the performance and efficiency of machines. Shinkansen bullet train of Japan is the best
example which used the biomimicry of kingfisher’s beak.
• Aerodynamic Design: The front of the Shinkansen is meticulously shaped to reduce air resistance
and improve aerodynamic performance. The streamlined design minimizes drag as the train
travels at high speeds, allowing it to maintain stability and efficiency. The smooth, tapered shape
reduces the pressure difference between the front and rear of the train, reducing noise and
vibration.
• Pressure Wave Reduction: When a high-speed train moves through a tunnel, it creates pressure
waves that can cause noise and discomfort for passengers. The nose of the Shinkansen is
designed to reduce these pressure waves by effectively managing airflow and minimizing the
compression and expansion of air as the train enters and exits tunnels. This reduces the noise
level and enhances passenger comfort
 Human Blood Substitutes
Human blood substitutes are synthetic products that are designed to act as a replacement for
blood in the human body.
Basic Requirement for Human Blood Substitutes
1. Effective Oxygen Transport: Human blood substitutes must be capable of efficiently carrying
and delivering oxygen to the body's tissues. This is a fundamental function of natural blood that
any substitute should be able to replicate or improve upon.
2. Safety and Compatibility: Blood substitutes should be safe for use in the human body and well-
tolerated by the recipient. They should not cause significant adverse reactions, toxicity, or
immune responses. Additionally, they should not interfere with normal blood clotting or other
essential physiological processes.
3. Storage and Transport: Human blood substitutes should be stable and capable of being stored
and transported easily. This is particularly important in emergency situations or areas where
access to blood products may be limited. The ability to store and transport substitutes
effectively ensures their availability when needed.
4. Cost-Effectiveness and Scalability: Blood substitutes should be cost-effective and scalable for
widespread use in medical settings. They should be affordable and feasible to produce in large
quantities, meeting the potential demand for blood products.
Types of HBS
• Hemoglobin-based oxygen carriers (HBOCs): are based on the hemoglobin molecule, which is
the protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen to the body's tissues.
• Hemoglobin is extracted from human or animal blood and then modified to create a stable,
synthetic version. When introduced into the body, HBOCs can help to increase the amount of
oxygen available to the tissues, which can be important in situations where the body is unable to
produce or transport enough red blood cells.
• perfluorocarbons (PFCs): PFCs are synthetic molecules that are similar in structure to the
hemoglobin molecule. However, unlike HBOCs, they do not require modification from natural
sources. PFCs are able to dissolve oxygen and transport it throughout the body, similar to the
way that red blood cells work
1. Hemoglobin-based oxygen carriers (HBOCs) are a type of human blood substitute that is
designed to carry and deliver oxygen to the body's tissues.
• They are made by isolating hemoglobin, the protein responsible for carrying oxygen in red blood
cells, and formulating it into a solution or suspension that can be infused into a patient's
bloodstream.
Advantages of hemoglobin-based oxygen carriers
1. Increased oxygen-carrying capacity: HBOCs can potentially carry more oxygen per unit volume
than whole blood. - where there is a need for rapid oxygen delivery or when there is limited
availability of blood for transfusion.
2. Universal compatibility: Unlike blood transfusions, which require blood typing and cross-
matching to ensure compatibility, HBOCs can potentially be universally compatible with any
blood type. This can be particularly useful in emergency situations or in areas where blood
matching facilities are limited.
3. Longer shelf life: HBOCs have the potential for longer storage and shelf life compared to
donated blood, which has a limited lifespan. This can improve the availability of oxygen-carrying
substitutes in critical situations and reduce the need for frequent blood donations.
4. Reduced risk of infections: Blood transfusions carry a small risk of transmitting infections, such
as viruses or bacteria, from the donor to the recipient. Since HBOCs are synthetic and do not
rely on human donors, the risk of infections associated with transfusion can be significantly
reduced.
5. Availability in remote or challenging settings: In remote or underdeveloped areas where access
to safe blood transfusions may be limited, HBOCs can potentially provide a viable alternative for
oxygen delivery. This can be particularly beneficial in military settings, disaster relief efforts, or
during transport of patients where immediate access to blood is not feasible
Limitations/Risks of using HBOCs
1. Limited oxygen release: The oxygen dissociation curve of HBOCs may differ from that of natural
red blood cells, potentially leading to inadequate oxygen delivery to tissues in certain
conditions.
2. Short half-life: HBOCs tend to have a shorter half-life in the body compared to natural red
blood cells. This means that the HBOCs may be rapidly cleared from circulation, reducing their
effectiveness and requiring more frequent doses or infusions.
3. Nitric oxide scavenging: HBOCs have a tendency to scavenge nitric oxide, a molecule important
for regulating blood vessel dilation and maintaining normal blood flow. Excessive nitric oxide
scavenging by HBOCs can lead to vasoconstriction, impairing blood flow to vital organs and
potentially causing adverse cardiovascular effects.
4. Renal toxicity: causing damage to the kidneys. This can be a significant concern as the kidneys
play a crucial role in filtering and excreting waste products from the body.
5. Immunogenicity and adverse reactions: HBOCs can trigger immune responses in the body,
potentially leading to allergic reactions or other adverse events. Immunogenicity can vary
between different HBOC products and individuals, and careful monitoring is necessary to
identify and manage any potential adverse reactions.
6. Regulatory challenges: HBOCs are subject to rigorous regulatory scrutiny due to their potential
risks and complex nature. Obtaining regulatory approval for HBOCs can be a lengthy and costly
process, and several HBOC products have faced setbacks in their development due to safety
concerns.
7. Interference with diagnostic tests: HBOCs can interfere with certain laboratory tests, such as
those measuring bilirubin or liver enzymes. This interference can complicate the interpretation
of results and potentially lead to diagnostic errors
Examples of HBOCs
1. Hemopure: Hemopure is an HBOC that is made from bovine hemoglobin. It has been approved
for use in South Africa, Russia, and some other countries.
2. Oxyglobin: Oxyglobin is another HBOC that is made from bovine hemoglobin. It is approved for
veterinary use in the United States and has been used to treat anemia in dogs.
3. Hemospan: Hemospan is an HBOC that is being developed by Sangart Inc. It is currently in
clinical trials and has shown promise in increasing oxygen delivery to tissues.
4. MP4OX: MP4OX is an HBOC that is being developed by Baxter Healthcare. It is designed to
increase oxygen delivery to tissues and also to scavenge harmful free radicals in the
bloodstream.
5. Hemolink: Hemolink is an HBOC that is being developed by Hemosol Inc. It is designed to be
used in trauma and surgical settings and has shown promise in improving oxygen delivery to
tissues.
(Note: Many countries have not yet given regulatory approval for clinical usage of HBOCs)
Perfluorocarbons (PFCs) are a type of human blood substitute that are designed to deliver oxygen
to the body's tissues.
• Unlike hemoglobin-based oxygen carriers (HBOCs), which are based on natural proteins, PFCs are
synthetic chemicals that are similar in structure to some types of industrial solvents.
Advantages of PFCs
1. High oxygen-carrying capacity: PFCs have the ability to dissolve a significant amount of oxygen,
much higher than that of blood. This allows for efficient oxygen delivery to tissues, even in low-
oxygen environments.
2. Improved oxygen solubility: PFCs exhibit a high solubility for oxygen, meaning that oxygen
molecules can readily dissolve in PFC solutions. This enables PFCs to transport and deliver
oxygen more effectively than other alternatives.
3. Stability and long shelf life: PFCs are chemically stable and have a long shelf life, making them
suitable for storage and use in emergency situations where the availability of fresh blood or
other oxygen carriers may be limited.
4. No blood typing or cross-matching required: Unlike blood transfusions, which require
compatibility testing and matching of blood types, PFCs are not dependent on blood typing. This
makes them potentially universal oxygen carriers, suitable for use in individuals of any blood
type.
5. Reduced risk of infection transmission: PFCs are synthetic substances, eliminating the risk of
transmitting infectious diseases associated with blood transfusions. This advantage can be
particularly significant in situations where the availability of safe blood products is limited or in
areas with a high prevalence of blood-borne infections.
6. Compatibility with diagnostic tests: PFCs do not interfere with laboratory diagnostic tests,
allowing for accurate interpretation of test results without potential complications from the
presence of PFCs.
Limitations of PFCs
1. Limited oxygen offloading: While PFCs have a high capacity to carry and dissolve oxygen, they
tend to have a reduced ability to release oxygen to tissues compared to red blood cells. This can
result in inefficient oxygen delivery, especially in situations where oxygen demand is high or
oxygen tension in tissues is low.
2. Need for specialized administration methods: PFCs typically require specialized administration
techniques, such as emulsification or encapsulation, to enhance their stability and improve their
oxygen-carrying capacity. These techniques can add complexity and cost to the administration
process.
3. Short half-life: PFCs have a relatively short half-life in the body, leading to the need for frequent
administration to maintain adequate oxygen-carrying capacity. This can be impractical in certain
clinical scenarios or situations where prolonged oxygen delivery is required.
4. Clearance and elimination: PFCs are primarily eliminated from the body through the lungs, and
their elimination kinetics can vary among individuals. This can impact their effectiveness and
clearance rates, potentially limiting their duration of action.
5. Side effects and toxicity: PFCs have the potential for side effects and toxicity, particularly if used
in excessive amounts or for prolonged periods. Adverse effects can include respiratory distress,
immune reactions, and potential organ toxicity. The safety profile of PFCs needs to be
thoroughly studied and monitored.
6. Regulatory considerations: PFCs are subject to regulatory approval and scrutiny, similar to other
medical products. Obtaining regulatory approval for PFC-based products can involve extensive
testing and evaluation to ensure their safety and efficacy.
Examples of PFCs
1. Perftoran: Perftoran is a PFC that was developed in Russia and is used in several countries,
including Russia, Ukraine, and China. It has been used in the treatment of a variety of
conditions, including trauma, heart attack, and stroke.
2. Oxycyte: Oxycyte is a PFC that is being developed by Oxygen Biotherapeutics. It is currently in
clinical trials and has shown promise in increasing oxygen delivery to tissues in patients with
traumatic brain injury.
3. Oxycyte PFC Emulsion: This is another PFC-based blood substitute being developed by Oxygen
Biotherapeutics. It is designed to be used as an oxygen carrier during surgery and other medical
procedures.
4. Hemopure-PFC: Hemopure-PFC is a hybrid blood substitute that combines a PFC with a
hemoglobin-based oxygen carrier. It is being developed by HbO2 Therapeutics and has shown
promise in increasing oxygen delivery to tissues in preclinical studies.
It's important to note that while these technologies show promise, they are still in development and
further studies are needed to evaluate their safety and effectiveness.