Module-I

Overview of computer and

communication
networks
 Overview of computer and communication
networks
• Network Protocols are a set of guidelines.;
• Leading the exchange of information in a simple,
dependable, and secure way.
• Network protocols are formal standards and
policies consists of rules, methodology, and
configurations.;
• It defines communication between two or more
devices over a network.
• To effectively send and receive information,
devices on the two sides of a communication
exchange must follow protocols
 Protocols

• Protocols are the set of rules that govern data

communication.
• Protocols can be defined as a communication
standard followed by both the parties (Sender
and Receiver) in a computer network to
communicate with each other.
Key Elements of Protocol
 Key Elements of Protocol
• 1. Syntax: Syntax basically represents the format of the data means in
which order data is presented. ;
• It also indicates how to read the data.;
• It simply means the way to represent data.;
• For Example, let us suppose a data packet has 16 bits, in which the first
4 bits are the sender’s address, the last 4 bits are the receiver’s address
and the rest is the message. ;
• So, this is a syntax to represent data bits.
• 2. Semantics: Semantics basically refers to the meaning of each section
mentioned in syntax. ;
• It includes control information for coordination and error handling. ;
• It also specifies which file defines which action.
• 3. Timing: Timing simply means when the data is to be sent and how fast
the data can be sent. ;
• For Example, if the Sender sends the data at 100 MBPS and the receiver
receives it at 1 MBPS, then the data gets overflowed at the receiver end.
 ;
Functions of Protocol

• Establishment of Connection: ;
• There are two ways of data transfer, Connectionless or Connection-Oriented. ;
• Basically, services are developed by protocols are Connection-Oriented Services. It also helps during the
transfer of large volumes of data.
• Encapsulation: A protocol describes how the data is encapsulated in packets.;
• It is basically the process of distribution of one protocol to other.
• Data Transfer Management: It is simply the management of the flow of data to provide sequencing and
matching.
• Segmentation and Reassembly: Segmentation is the process of breaking data into smaller blocks and adding
some extra information for peer use and Reassembly means when the upper-level protocol combines to get
actual data when we remove control information sent by the sender.
• Error Control: Error Control is simply the loss of data or sometimes damage in data upon transmission in
data. It is implemented in two ways
– Error Detection
– Retransmission of Data
• Flow Control: The process of controlling the flow of data to limit the rate of data sent by transmitting frame.
Techniques used for this method are Stop and Wait, etc. It is used to basically control the problems like data
loss, data overloading, etc.
• Multiplexing/Demultiplexing: Multiplexing is a technique generally used in the context of Addressing. It is
basically of two types:
– Upward Multiplexing
– Downward Multiplexing
• Addressing: Addressing is used during communication by defining addresses. The concept of Addressing is
complex and includes addressing levels and addressing scope
 Protocols of Network Communication

• Network communication protocol requires the following

elements:
• Message Encoding
• Message Formatting and Encapsulation
• Message Size
• Message Timing
• Message Delivery Options
• 1. Message Encoding: A source message from the sender is
encoded into signals or waves then transmitted through a
medium wired/wireless then received and decoded and the
message is
 contd
• passed to the destination. Encoding is the
process of transforming a set of Unicode
characters into a sequence of bytes.
 contd
• 2. Message Formatting and Encapsulation: ;
 There is an agreed format between the sender and receiver. ;
 It encapsulates information to identify the sender and receiver rightly.;
 A message format will depend on the type of message and the medium through which the message is delivered. ;
 Message encapsulation is a process that is used to place one message inside another message for transfer from the source to
the destination.
• 3. Message Size: ;
 Here long messages must break into small pieces to travel across a network ;
 or The process of breaking up a long message into individual pieces before being sent over the network. ;
 For example, In mobile phones, SMS limits message size to 160 normal alphabet characters.;
 For non-alphabet characters, It needs 16 bits of data to represent them limiting the size to 70 characters only.
• 4. Message Timing: ;
 It manages flow control.
 Acknowledgments response time out. ;
 This requires certain timing control information.;
 It checks for any delays in data passing.;
 It includes rules like Access method, flow control, and response timeout.
• 5. Message Delivery Options: ;
 There are different delivery options like Unicast, Multicast, and Broadcast. ;
 Sending information to a single person is referred to as a one-to-one delivery and is called unicast which implies that there is
only one destination (single destination). ;
 To communicate information to more than one person (a group of people at the same time) is referred to as one-to-many and is
called multicast which implies that one sender to multiple destinations/recipients for the same message. ;
 Sometimes information is to be communicated to every person in the same area. ;
 This is referred to as one-to-all and is called broadcast which implies that one sender sends a message to all connected
recipients.
What is a Protocol Stack? And Why is it Layered?

• Protocol stacks are important for a variety of

reasons. But what are they, exactly?
• Protocol stacks are a layered collection of
protocols that work together to provide
communication services. ;
• Each protocol in the stack is responsible for a
specific task, and by layering them, we can
create a more robust and reliable system.
 Layered Architecture
• The layered architecture pattern, often known as the “n-tier” architecture design.;
• it is a common technique for reducing complexity across numerous disciplines.
• A structure is divided into parts that work together. ;
• Each part has a special job to do. The parts are arranged in layers, one on top of the other.
• A simple example is the airline system:
 An airplane system is a good analogy to use because computer networking is a lot like air
travel: ;
 In an airplane, a passenger is being “shipped” from source to destination the same way that
in a computer network a message is being shipped from one device to another.
 An airline system is a complex system and its functionality, ;
 is organized in layers, very much like the Bluetooth LE Protocol stack or any other stack.
 Think for a minute about a series of steps you take when you fly on an airline.
 First, you purchase your ticket, ;
 check your bags, go to the gate, and eventually get loaded onto the plane.;
 The plane takes off and is routed to its destination. ;
 After your plane lands, you deplane at the gate and claim your bags.;
 If the trip was bad, you complain about the flight to the ticket agent.
 Behind these actions is a structure. A layered structure.
Airline-system
Key Difference between TCP/IP and OSI Model

• TCP/IP is a practical model that addresses

specific communication challenges and relies
on standardized protocols. ;
• In contrast, OSI serves as a comprehensive,
protocol-independent framework designed to
encompass various network communication
methods.
 Characteristics of TCP/IP Model

• The Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) model came

before the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model, and it has five
layers:
• Application layer
• Transport layer
• Network access layer
• Network interface layer
• Hardware layer
• This may look drastically different from the OSI model, primarily because
some functions are encompassed in a single layer: the application layer. In
TCP/IP, this provides users with the physical standards, transport
functions, network interface, and internetworking functions that
correspond with the first three layers of the OSI model. In other words, in
the TCP/IP model, these services are all done in the application layer.
 contd
• This may look drastically different from the OSI
model, primarily because some functions are
encompassed in a single layer: the application layer.
;
• In TCP/IP, this provides users with the physical
standards, transport functions, network interface,
and internetworking functions that correspond
with the first three layers of the OSI model.;
• In other words, in the TCP/IP model, these services
are all done in the application layer.
 Characteristics of the OSI Model

• The OSI model is another way of transmitting data over the

internet. ;
• The biggest difference between the OSI and TCP/IP models
is the OSI model has seven layers instead of five. ;
• Although both the TCP/IP and OSI models transport data,
the ways they send it are slightly different, which is
sometimes why TCP/IP is used instead of OSI.
• However, in the TCP/IP vs. OSI discussion, there are more
similarities between the OSI and TCP/IP models than
differences. ;
• Both provide data communication services, enabling users
to send and receive information from their IP address using
the services made available by their internet service
provider (ISP).
 ;
;
The OSI model has the following layers:
;
• Physical. This consists of a data connection between a device
-\

generating data and the network.

• Datalink. The datalink layer is the point-to-point connection that
transmits the data to the network layer.
• Network. In the network layer, the data gets its address and routing
instructions in preparation for its journey across the network.
• Transport. In the transport layer, the data hops between different
points on the network on its way to its destination.
• Session. The session layer has a connection that manages the
sessions happening between applications.
• Presentation. The presentation layer is where data gets encrypted
and decrypted and converted into a form that is accessible by the
application layer,
• Application. In the application layer, an application, such as an
internet browser, gets the data and a user can then interact with it.
 ;
TCP/IP vs. OSI Model: Comparative Analysis

• Similarities Between TCP/IP and OSI Model

• Both the TCP/IP and OSI models provide logical ways of
networking, as well as the processing of information using
a layered system. ;
• In both systems, each layer has a specific function. ;
• This makes it easier to pinpoint where issues are occurring
in the event of a failure.
• For example, in both models, you can determine if the data
is not being transmitted properly to a hardware device by
isolating potential problems in the data link layer (OSI) or
the hardware layer (TCP/IP).
Differences Between the TCP/IP and OSI Model

• The biggest difference between the two models is that the OSI model
segments multiple functions that the TCP/IP model groups into single layers. ;
• This is true of both the application and network access layers of the TCP/IP
model, which contain multiple layers outlined within the OSI model.
• This is a significant difference because it can make it more difficult to
troubleshoot issues or enhance performance when you are using the TCP/IP
model.;
• With the OSI model, for example, you can focus specifically on the application
layer, presentation layer, or session layer to figure out why data is not coming
out the way you expect.
• With the TCP/IP model, on the other hand, the functions of these three layers
are all combined in the application layer.;
• In other words, while someone may say, “There is a problem in the application
layer,” someone thinking in terms of the OSI model may get confused,
wondering, “OK, but which part of the application layer?”
TCP/IP vs. OSI Model: How To Choose
• For many users, the OSI model is the preferable choice—all
other things being equal. ;
• The fact that it segments the functions of the network into
more layers makes troubleshooting and improving network
performance more straightforward.
• However, TCP/IP has the advantage of having more
applications, and it is also commonly used in more current
networking structures. ;
• This makes it preferable for some administrators because it
may be the framework commonly used by teammates or
other admins
 Network Standards

• Networking standards define the rules for data communications that

are needed for interoperability of networking technologies and
processes. Standards help in creating and maintaining open markets
and allow different vendors to compete on the basis of the quality of
their products while being compatible with existing market products.
• During data communication, a number of standards may be used
simultaneously at the different layers. The commonly used standards
at each layer are −
• Application layer − HTTP, HTML, POP, H.323, IMAP
• Transport layer − TCP, SPX
• Network layer −IP, IPX
• Data link layer − Ethernet IEEE 802.3, X.25, Frame Relay
• Physical layer −RS-232C (cable), V.92 (modem)
 Types of Standards

• Standards are of two types

• De facto − These are the standards that are followed
without any formal plan or approval by any organization.
They have come into existence due to traditions or facts.
For example, the HTTP had started as a de facto
standard.
• De jure − These standards are the ones which have been
adopted through legislation by any officially recognized
standards organization. Most of the communication
standards that are used today are de jure standards.
 Standards Organizations

• Some of the noted standards organizations are

• International Standards Organization (ISO)
• International Telecommunication Union (ITU)
• Institute of Electronics and Electrical Engineers (IEEE)
• American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
• Internet Research Task Force (IETF)
• Electronic Industries Association (EIA)
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