6.

1 Digestion and absorption

1. Low power light microscope image: cross section
of the ileum shows both the folded nature of the
2. Magnification increased:
inner wall and the outer muscular layers helping to
intricate folded nature of the
food along and increasing the surface area in
walls becomes clear.
contact with digested food.

http://medcell.med.yale.edu/systems_cell_biology_old/gi/im
ages/small_intestine.jpg

3. Magnification increased further: an individual villus

can be distinguished. The specialized cells are key in
http://medcell.med.yale.edu/systems_cell_biology_old
/gi/images/ileum.jpg both the processes of digestion and absorption, e.g.
goblet cells secrete enzymes into the lumen.

Essential idea: The structure of the wall of the small

intestine allows it to move, digest and absorb food.

4. An electron micrograph at
very higher magnification: the http://medcell.med.yale.edu/systems_cell_biology_ol
d/gi/images/villus.jpg
microvilli on the surface of a
single villus can be seen, they
further increase the surface area By Chris Paine
available for absorption.
https://bioknowledgy.weebly.com/
http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/zo250/brush_border.gif
Understandings
Statements Guidance
The contraction of circular and longitudinal muscle of the small intestine
6.1.U1
mixes the food with enzymes and moves it along the gut.
Students should know that amylase,
The pancreas secretes enzymes lipase and an endopeptidase are
6.1.U2 into the lumen of the small secreted by the pancreas. The name
intestine. trypsin and the method used to
activate it are not required.
Students should know that starch,
Enzymes digest most
glycogen, lipids and nucleic acids are
6.1.U3 macromolecules in food into
digested into monomers and that
monomers in the small intestine.
cellulose remains undigested.
Villi increase the surface area of epithelium over which absorption is
6.1.U4
carried out.
Villi absorb monomers formed by digestion as well as mineral ions and
6.1.U5
vitamins.
Different methods of membrane transport are required to absorb
6.1.U6
different nutrients.
Applications and Skills
Statements Guidance
Processes occurring in the small intestine that result in the digestion of
6.1.A1
starch and transport of the products of digestion to the liver.
Use of dialysis tubing to model absorption of digested food in the
6.1.A2
intestine.
6.1.S1 Production of an annotated diagram of the digestive system.
Identification of tissue layers in Tissue layers should include
transverse sections of the small longitudinal and circular muscles,
6.1.S2
intestine viewed with a microscope mucosa and epithelium.
or in a micrograph.
6.1.S1 Production of an annotated diagram of the digestive system.

Plus add in the accessory

organs: gall bladder, liver
and pancreas.
6.1.S1 Production of an annotated diagram of the digestive system.
6.1.S1 Production of an annotated diagram of the digestive system.
6.1.S1 Production of an annotated diagram of the digestive system.

Now, draw and label a diagram of

human digestive system
6.1.S1 Production of an annotated diagram of the digestive system.
Use the animation and video to learn about the digestive system and how to
draw it.

ORGANS OF DIGESTION - A
nimated Introduction to gastroi
ntestinal physiology - YouTube

https://youtu.be/Nm-pT7fk6gs

Key Features:
• Stomach should look like a ‘J’-shaped bag and be connected to the
oesophagus and small intestine
• Liver should look like a right-angled triangle and be superimposed to the
left of the stomach (right side of the human)
• Bile duct (connected to gall bladder) and pancreatic duct should both feed
into a U-shaped bend of the small intestine
• Small intestine should be thinner in width than the large intestine
6.1.S1 Production of an annotated diagram of the digestive system.
Now add the annotations to show what happens in digestion.
Can we eat upside down?
6.1.U1 The contraction of circular and longitudinal muscle of the small intestine
mixes the food with enzymes and moves it along the gut.

Movement of Food
Peristalsis
• Is the principal mechanism of movement in the
esophagus that also occurs in both the stomach and
intestines.
• Continuous segments of longitudinal smooth
muscle rhythmically contract and relax
• Food is moved uni-directionally along the
alimentary canal in a caudal direction (mouth to
anus)
Segmentation
• The contraction and relaxation of non-adjacent
segments of circular smooth muscle in the
intestines
• Segmentation contractions move chyme in both
directions, allowing for a greater mixing of food
with digestive juices
• While segmentation helps to physically digest food
particles, it can also slow overall movement of
food.
6.1.U1 The contraction of circular and longitudinal muscle of the small intestine mixes the food with
enzymes and moves it along the gut.
Peristalsis moves food through the alimentary canal

1. Contraction of
longitudinal https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZZCgF24HI
_o
muscle expand
the lumen in
front of the
food giving it In the small intestine peristalsis
space to move also mixes food with enzymes and
into. forces the products of digesiton
into contact with the wall of the
2. Contraction of
intestine
circular muscles
behind the food Therefore in the intestines the
propels it food is moved very slowly to allow
forwards. time for digestion.
n.b. The contractions are controlled
unconsciously by the enteric nervous system http://www.austincc.edu/rfofi/NursingRvw/NursingPics/DigestivePics/Picture4.jpg
6.1.U3 Enzymes digest most macromolecules in food into monomers in the small intestine.

1. Outline the importance of digestion?

• Cell needs the appropriate size and solubility of nutrients to function
• Digestion helps to breakdown macromolecules into its monomers for cell
to use(absorb and assimilate)
• The conversion helps the insoluble food molecules to become soluble
nutrients
• Monomers from digestion can be recycled for different uses e.g. fatty
acid molecule for the maintenance of plasma membrane
2. State the reaction required to break down macromolecules to its
monomers.
• Hydrolysis
3. Outline a word equation for the hydrolysis of a triglyceride
molecule.
Triglyceride + water  Fatty acid molecules + glycerol
6.1.U3 Enzymes digest most macromolecules in food into monomers in the small intestine.

Human Digestive Enzymes Outline 3 main types of

Remember: enzymes are specific to their substrates and human digestive enzymes.
each enzyme has its own optimum pH.
Three main types of enzymes in human digestion:
Amylases break down carbohydrates
Example: pancreatic amylase
Substrate: starch Product: maltose
Source: pancreas
Optimum pH: 6.7–7.0
Endopeptidases/Proteases break down
polypeptides
Example: pepsin
Substrate: polypeptides Product: amino acids
Source: stomach
Optimum pH: 2
Lipases break down fats and lipids
Example: pancreatic lipase
Substrate: triglycerides Product: fatty acids & glycerol
Source: pancreas, delivered into small intestine
Optimum pH: 7.2 - 7.5
diagram from: http://www.teachervision.fen.com/digestive-system/printable/57730.html
Endopeptidases are excreted by the pancreas!
6.1.U2 The pancreas secretes enzymes into the lumen of the small intestine

List three
enzymes State the
produced by the location
pancreas where
these
enzymes
are being
secreted
into.

Lumen of
the
duodenum
 The Small Intestine
Bile
- a green, watery liquid delivered to the duodenum which contain
bile salts that emulsify the fats

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZeUlh9Cou38
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IxNpXO8gGFM&list=PL7F05514E812E8181 enzymes
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vTQybDgweiE
6.1.U2 The pancreas secretes enzymes into the lumen of the small intestine.

The pancreas synthesizes the three main types of digestive enzyme:

• amylase to digest carbohydrates, e.g.
starch
• lipases to digest lipids, e.g. triglycerides
• proteases to digest polypeptides
Pancreatic juice containing
the enzymes is released
into the upper region of
the small intestine
(duodenum) via the
pancreatic duct

The duodenum is where the final

stages of digestion occur.

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Diagram_showing_the_position_of_the_pancreas_CRUK_356.svg
6.1.U2 The pancreas secretes enzymes into the lumen of the small intestine.

• What about the 4th macromolecule?

– Nucleic acids
• DNA and RNA
• State the enzyme to digest these.
– Nucleases
6.1.A1 Process occurring in the small intestine that result in the digestion of starch
and transport of the products of digestion to the liver.
https://ib.bioninja.com.au/standard-level/topic-6-human-physiology/61-digestion-and-absorption/s
tarch-digestion.html

• Liver cells change

amino acids in foods
so that they can be
used by the body.
Blood from the intestine flows into
the liver through the hepatic portal vein • A toxic ammonia by-
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK279393/ product is produced
• liver helps to ensure that the level of sugar in from this process.
your blood (blood glucose) stays constant. • The liver cells convert
• If your blood sugar levels increase, the liver ammonia to urea (less
removes sugar from blood supplied by the toxic)
portal vein and stores it in the form of • Urea is released into
glycogen. the blood and get
• If the blood sugar levels are too low, the liver transported to the
breaks down glycogen and releases sugar into kidneys to pass out of
the blood. the body in urine.
 Past-paper Practice Question
Plants store carbohydrate in the form of starch. Explain the
reasons for starch being digested by the human digestive
system.
(4)
Outline the digestion of vegetable or fruits in humans
6.1.U4 Villi increase the surface area of epithelium over which absorption is carried out.

Distinguish between absorption and assimilation

https://youtu.be/P1sDOJM65Bc

Along with vitamins and minerals all products

of digestion (monosaccharides,
amino acids, fatty acids & glycerol)
are absorbed by the villi
Distinguish between absorption and assimilation
(What is the ATL for this CT?)
Distinguish between absorption and assimilation
(What is the ATL for this CT?)
Absorption Assimilation
• the movement of food • nutrients must be assimilated -
molecules- after digestion/ they are used in a specific way
simple molecules- digestive in the body.
system into the blood system- • glucose from digestion is used
to reach part of the body/ every in respiration to release energy
cell. it occurs in the small • amino acids are used for
intestine. protein synthesis (e.g. Enzyme)
• fats – For long-term energy
provision and maintenance of
plasma membrane
6.1.S2 Identification of tissue layers in transverse sections of the small
intestine viewed with a microscope or in a micrograph.

• You will need to be able to identify the followings:

1. Vili
2. Epithelium
3. Sub-mucosa (layer)
4. Mucosa (layer)
5. Longitudinal muscle layer
6. Circular muscle layer
7. Serosa
6.1.S2 Identification of tissue layers in transverse sections of the small intestine viewed with a microscope
or in a micrograph.

The small intestine contains four distinct

tissue layers from the lumen
Serosa – protective outer layer
Muscular layer – inner circular and outer
longitudinal muscle perform peristalsis

Submucosa –
connective tissue
Muscular layer (between the
mucosa and
circular muscle)
longitudinal
Mucosa – inner
lining, includes villi

http://www.dartmouth.edu/~anatomy/Histo/lab_5/GI/DMS132/popup.html
www.colorado.edu
 ?

https://ib.bioninja.com.au/standard-level/topic-6-human-physiology/61-
digestion-and-absorption/small-intestine.html
Explain how the structure of a villus in the small intestine is
related to its function. [7]

To achieve [1] answer must name the structure and relate it to its function.

Accept any of the points above shown in a drawing. 7 max

(Plus up to [2] for quality)
6.1.U6 Different methods of membrane transport are required to absorb different nutrients.

How is membrane transport involved in absorption of nutrients

from the small intestine?
Method of Nutrients Outline
transport
Simple
diffusion

Facilitated
Diffusion

Active
Transport

Endocytosis
(Pinocytosis)
6.1.U6 Different methods of membrane transport are required to absorb different nutrients.

How is membrane transport involved in absorption of nutrients

from the small intestine?
Method of Nutrients Outline
transport
Simple Lipids
diffusion

Facilitated Fructose, vitamins

Diffusion

Active Glucose, amino

Transport acids, mineral ions

Endocytosis Antibodies from

(Pinocytosis) breast milk.
How is membrane transport involved in absorption of nutrients
from the small intestine?
Method of Nutrients Outline
transport
Simple Lipids Lipids are non-polar and therefore can pass
diffusion freely through hydrophobic core of the
plasma membrane into the epithelial cells
(down the concentration gradient )
Facilitated Fructose, Water-soluble (hydrophilic) molecules use
Diffusion vitamins channel proteins to pass phospholipid bilayer
and enter the epithelial cells (down the
concentration gradient)
Active Glucose, amino Protein pumps use ATP to move molecules
Transport acids and against the concentration gradient into the
mineral ions epithelial cells
Endocytosis Antibodies from The plasma membrane folds inward to form
(Pinocytosis) breast milk vesicles to absorb larger molecules without
digesting them
How is membrane transport involved in absorption of nutrients
from the small intestine?
Method of Nutrients Outline
transport
Simple Lipids Lipids are non-polar and therefore can pass
diffusion freely through hydrophobic core of the
plasma membrane into the epithelial cells
(down the concentration gradient )
Facilitated Fructose, Polar/water soluble (hydrophilic) molecules
Diffusion vitamins use channel proteins to pass phospholipid
bilayer and enter the epithelial cells (down
the concentration gradient)
Active Glucose, amino Protein pumps use ATP to move molecules
Transport acids and against the concentration gradient into the
mineral ions epithelial cells
Endocytosis Antibodies from The plasma membrane folds inward to form
(Pinocytosis) breast milk vesicles to absorb larger molecules without
digesting them
6.1.A1 Processes occurring in the small intestine that result in the digestion of starch and transport of the
products of digestion to the liver.

Starch consists of amylose (by 1,4 bonds) and amylopectin (by 1,4 bonds and
occasional by 1,6 bonds) Amylase breaks 1,4 bonds in chains of four or
more monomers producing maltose

Maltase digests maltose

into glucose monomers Dextrinase breaks the 1,6 bonds that
amylase cannot deal with forming
glucose monomers

http://etravelweek.com/hmattachments/1_200907180843167cXQr.gif
6.1.A1 Processes occurring in the small intestine that result in the digestion of starch and transport of the
products of digestion to the liver.
The digested glucose is absorbed and then transported to various body tissues
1. Glucose is co-transported*
with sodium ions into the
epithelial cells (of the villus).
2. Glucose moves by facilitated
diffusion into the lumen of the
villus.
Draw and annotate how
3. Glucose then through another glucose is absorbed and
facilitated diffusion, move into
the adjacent capillaries where transported to various body
it dissolves into the blood
plasma tissues
4. Blood in the capillaries moves
to venules then to the hepatic
portal vein which transports
the glucose to the liver.
5. The liver absorbs excess Extension: co-transport of glucose is a form of active
glucose which it converts to transport. Explain why using the diagram above.
glycogen for storage.
http://www.rpi.edu/dept/chem-eng/Biotech-Environ/Membranes/bauerp/co.gif
6.1.A2 Use of dialysis tubing to model absorption of digested food in the intestine.

Dialysis (visking) tubing can be used to model absorption

The tubing is semi-permeable and contains pores
typically ranging 1 – 10 nm in diameter

Predict what will happen to the

glucose and starch after 15
minutes.

Initially contains a
mixture of starch and
glucose
Test the solutions inside and outside the dialysis
tubing for starch and glucose before and after at
least 15 minutes have elapsed (see the Practical
Biology link for details).

http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/practical-biology/evaluat
ing-visking-tubing-model-gut
Nature of Science: Use models as representations of the real world - dialysis tubing can be used to model
absorption in the intestine. (1.10)

Dialysis (visking) tubing can be used to model absorption

The tubing is semi-permeable and contains pores
typically ranging 1 – 10 nm in diameter

Predict what will happen to the

glucose andm e nt
starchof th e
afterscie
15 nti fic method. It is any
basic ele
The model is the mostminutes. d-in for what you are actually studying or
simplification,substitute or stan lysis el for
tubing as a mod
u sefu ln e ss o f d ia
ate the
trying to predict. Evalu
absorption bInitially dering: a
y consicontains th e sm all intestine?
lysis tubin g si m ila r to
e functiof
• How is thmixture of diaand
onstarch
re al gu t ar e m is sin g from this model?
• What feat ures of a
glucose
Test the solutions inside and outside the dialysis
tubing for starch and glucose before and after at
least 15 minutes have elapsed (see the Practical
Biology link for details).

http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/practical-biology/evaluat
ing-visking-tubing-model-gut
Bibliography / Acknowledgments

Bob Smullen